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Relative Position of Skeleton and Soft Parts of Fowl. 



Tlie 



Diseases ol Pouliry 



^ 



D. E. SALMON, D, V. M., 

Chief of the U. S. Bureau of Animal Industry. 









THE FEATHER LIBRARY, 

PUBLISHED BI-MONTHLY AT WASHINGTON, D. C, 

BY 

GEORGE E. HOWARD & CO. 

SUBSCKIPTION PRICE S2.50 A YEAR. VOL. I, NO. 3, JULY 1899. 

Entered at the Post Office at Washing-ton, D. C, 
as second-class mail matter. 



c <P^'' 



e>^':;n 



38818 



COrYKUiHTEI") AND PRlNTKn 



GEOKCK E. lUnVAKD & CO. 
Wasliiiitrton, n. C. 



TWOCOHIF.S KECeiVED. 



JUL 1 ; 1899 






PREFACE. 

The author has for years given attention to the dis- 
eases encountered in the poultry-yard, and long since 
became impressed with the desirability of a sys- 
tematic treatise on the subject. The pamphlets, by 
various authors, which have appeared in the English 
language have been very useful, but they have been 
far too brief, they have not contained the results of 
modern investigations and they have lacked illustra- 
tions. There have been more extensive monographs 
in German, French and Italian, but these have been, 
for the most part, sealed books to English-speaking 
poultrjmien. 

It has been necessary for the author to examine 
much of the literature of this subject in order to keep 
abreast with the progress of science and to reply in- 
telligently to the numerous inquiries which he has 
received. The notes thus made led to the writing of 
a number of articles for the press, which were so well 
received and brought out so many requests for more 
information, that it was decided to fill in the parts 
which had not been touched upon and produce a small 
reference book for the use of those interested in the 
subject. This volume is the result, and it is hoped 
that it may prove useful to the thousands who are an- 
nually under the necessity of struggling with the 
problem of disease in the poultry -yard. 

The author has, in the preparation of this work, 
consulted with much profit the Medccine des oiseaux, 



of Pierre Megnin, the Encyr/o/x-i/n- Cadeac, The Dis- 
eases of Poultr}^ by J. Woodroffe Hill, the Compara- 
tive Anatomy and Physiology of Vertebrates by 
Richard Owen, the Traite de zoologie medicale et agri- 
cole by A. Railliet, Die Krankheiten dcs Hausgc- 
fluegels by Friedrich Anton Zuern, Neumann's Para- 
sites and Parasitic Diseases of Domesticated Animals, 
translated by Fleming, and the bulletins and circulars 
of the Bureau of Animal Industry prepared by Theo- 
bald Smith, V. A. Moore, C. W. Stiles and A. Has- 
sall, as well as many valuable articles in the veterinary' 
periodicals. 

If this volume is the means of attracting more at- 
tention, in this country, to the diseases of birds, if it 
saves a part of the loss which now occurs from such 
diseases, and if it serves to mitigate the sufferings of 
these uncomplaining but highly sensitive creatures, 
the pur])ose of the author will be accomplished. 

D. E. Salmon. 



CONTENTS. 



PREFACE . . . . . .5 

CHAPTER I.— Intkoduction. . . . . U 

The Poultry Industry — Health and Disease — The 
Organs and Apparatus and Their Functions — 
Common Causes of Disease — Hygienic Require- 
ments — Disinfection — Objects of Medical Treat- 
ment. 

CHAP rER II. — Diseases of the Organs of Respira- 
tion. . . . . . . .26 

Structure and Function — Simple Catarrh — Roup, 
Contagious Catarrh — Bronchitis — The Gapes, 
Verminous Tracheo-Bronchitis, Syngamosis — Con- 
gestion of the Lungs, Pulmonary Congestion — 
Pneumonia — Mycosis of the Air-Passages, Asper- 
gillosis— The Air-Sac Mite. 

CHAPTER III.— Diseases of the Organs of Diges- 
tion. . . . . . . .66 

General Remarks Concerning the Digestive 
Organs— Obstruction of the Beak — Inflammation 
of the Mucous Membrane of the Mouth, Pip, 
Catarrhal Stomatitis — Thrush, Aphthse — Diph- 
theria — Psorospermosis — Aspergillosis — Croupous 
Angina — Obstruction of the Pharynx — Catarrh or 
Inflammation of the Crop — Paralysis of the Crop, 
Impacted Crop, Obstructed Crop — Abnormal Appe- 
tite, Aberration of the Appetite — Catarrh of the 
Proventriculus, Inflammation of the Stomach, 
Gastritis. 

CHAPTER IV. —Diseases of the Organs of Diges- 
tion (Continued). . . . . . 88 

Gastro-Intestinal Catarrh, Simple Diarrhea, Gas- 



tro-Eiiteritis, Knteritis -Cotistipatioii, Intestinal 
Obstruction Toxic Gastro-lCnteritis Bacterial 
Enteritis Asthenia. Cioing- Li^ht Psorospermic- 
Enteritis — Infectious Entoro-Hepatitis of '1 urkeys. 
Black Head Parasitic Worms which Infest the 
Dijjestive Apparatus The Nodular Taniiasis of 
Fowls. 

CHAPTEK V. DiSKASKSOK THK I'kkitonkim, Livkk, 

AND SpLKKN. . . . . . .127 

Peritonitis, Intlanimation of the Peritoneum — 
Chronic Peritonitis. Ascites. Abdominal Dropsy 
Diseases of the Liver Cong'estion of the Liver - 
Inflammation of the Liver, Hepatitis Icterus, 
Jaundice, Biliary Repletion Atrophy or Wasting- 
of the Liver P\itty Doi;eneration of the Liver — 
Fatty Liver Tuberculosis of the Liver. Spleen, 
and Peritoneum. 

CHAPTER VI. DiSKASKS oi- thk Organs ok Urina- 
tion AND REVRODICTION. . ... 136 
Brief Description of the ()r,<;ans of Urination — 
Parenchvmatous Nejihritis, Intlammation of the 
Kidneys Abscess of the Kidneys Obstruction of 
the Cloaca bv Urin^rv Concretions rhe Male 
Org-ans of Reproduction Hypertrophy or En- 
larg-ement of the Testicles Cancer of the Testi- 
cles Fatty Deg-eneration The Female Organs of 
Reproduction Atrophy of the t)vary Tumors of 
the Ovary Gangrene of the Ovary inflammation 
of the Oviduct— Prolapsus or Eversion of the Ovi- 
duct Difficult Laying. Egg Bound. Obstruction of 
the Oviduct CJan'grene of the Oviduct Rupture 
of the Oviduct Cloacitis, Vent (rleet Anomalies 
in Egg Production Egg Incubated in the Ovi- 
duct Parasites in Esrgs Sanguineous Eggs- 
Eggs Without Shells Eggs with Two Yolks—In- 
complete or Aborted Eggs Eggs Within Eggs. 

CHAPTER VII.- DiSEASKS ok thk Brain. . . 15«) 

Cerebral Hypera^mia, Congestion of the Brain. 
Vertigo Heuiorrhage of the Brain, Apoplexy — 
Epilepsy. 

CHAPTER VIII.— Diseases ok the Heart and 
Bi.ooD Vessels. ..... 162 

Pericarditis. Inflammation of the Pericardium, 
Dropsy of the Heart Sac Endocarditis. Inflamma- 
tion of the Internal Membrane of the Heart — 
Hypertrophy of the Heart Rupture of the Heart 
and Large Blood Vessels. 



CHAPTER IX.— Parasites and Diseases ok the 

Skin. . . . . . . .165 

The Epizoa or Parasites Living- Upon the Ex- 
ternal Surface of the Body — Scabies or Mange of 
the Body Scabies Caused by Epidermoptes — 
Scabies Caused by Sarcoptes, Depluming Sca- 
bies^ Favus — Chicken Pox, Sore Head, Pigeon 
Pox. 

CHAPTER X.— Diseases of the Feet and Eegs . 198 
Leg Weakness — Rheumatism and Gout Super- 
ficial Sores — Corns — Deep Bruises and Abscesses 
Scabies of the Legs and Feet, Scaly Legs. 

CHAPTER XI. —Infectious Diseases Having a 
Tf:ni)Ency to Affect Morf: than One Sf;t of 
Organs. . . .... 208 

Tuberculosis — Diphtheria, Diphtheritic Roup — In- 
fectious Leukaemia— Fowl Cholera. 

CHAPTER XII.— Injurious Habits ok Vices. . . 243 
Egg Eating — Feather Eating, Feather Pulling. 

INDEX . . . . . . .247 



LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS. 



FIG. PAGE. 

Skeleton and soft parts of a fowl (Megnin) 

FRONTISPIECE. 

1 Lungs of a fowl (Megnin) . . . . /7 

2 Head of fowl affected with contagious catarrh 
(Megnin) . . .... 33 

3 Right lung of a goose (Owen) . . .83 

4 Lung of a bird in ideal section (Williams) . 39 

5 A pair of syngames (Megnin) . . .42 

6 Development of Syngatnits trachcalis (Megnin) 43 
Diagram illustrating manner of removing syn- 
games with wire, horse-hair or feather. . 43 

7 Reproductive organs of syngames; pair of syn- 
games illustrating attachment to mucous mem- 
brane (Megnin). . . . . .45 

8 Chicken affected with gapes (Garman, Ky. Agl. 
Exp. Station) ..... 47 

9 Diagrammatic representation of the air sacs 
(Heider) . . . . . . .57 

lu Aspergillus glaucns (Cadeac) ... 59 

11 Aspergillus funiigatus (Ziegler) . . .59 

12 Cytodites nudus, male (Railliet) ... 62 

13 Cytodites nudus, female (Railliet) . . .64 

14 Digestive apparatus of a fowl (Chauveau) . 67 

15 Microscopic elements of thrush (Robin) . . 73 

16 Gastric glands of birds (Owen) ... 85 

17 Ca?caof healthy turkey (Smith, Bur. An. Industry) 104 

18 Diseased ca?ca, entero-hepatitis (Moore, Bur. An. 
Ind.) .... ... 105 

19 Liver of healthy turkey (Moore, Bur. An. Industry) 106 

20 Diseased liver, entero-hepatitis (Moore, Bur. An. 
Ind.) ....... 107 



21 Protozoa of entero-hepatitis (Smith, Bur. An. Ind.) 108 

22 Section of diseased liver, entero-hepatitis (Smith, 
Bur. An. Ind.) . . . • • -109 

23 Section of diseased ca;cum, entero-hepatitis 
(Smith, Bur. An. Ind.) . . • .110 

24 Heterakis perspicillum (Hassall, Bur. An. Industry) 112 

25 Drepariidoicenia infundibuliformis (Goeze) . . 117 

26 Notocotyle verrucosmn (Looss) . . • 119 

27 Echinorhynchiis polytnorphiis [R^WViei] • • 122 

28 Nodular t^eniasis; intestine with nodules and 
tapeworms (Moore, Bur. An. Industry) . • l--!- 

29 Nodular taeniasis; magnified section of intestine 
(Moore, Bur. An. Industry) .... 12o 

30 Urinary and reproductive organs of the hen 
(Kailliet) ....•• 138 

31 Reproductive organs of the cock (Railliet) . \S9 

32 Testes of the house sparrow (Hunter) . . 141 

33 Reproductive organs of the hen (Megnin) . . 143 

34 Egg from upper part of oviduct (Thomson) . l45 

35 Chalazce from opposite sides of yolk (Thomson) . 145 

36 Egg from above middle of oviduct (Thomson) 145 

37 Section of fowl's egg ( Thomson) . . .146 

38 Mcnopoti biseriafum (Piaget) . . . 175 

39 Menopon latum (Piaget) . . . .175 

40 Lipeurus coliimbcr (Piaget) . • • 176 

41 Goniodes dissimilis {V\^.^^&\.) . . . • 177 

42 Lipeurus capon is (Piaget) . . • 1'8 

43 Me7iopon pallidum (Piaget) .... 179 

44 Goniocotes hologaster (Piaget) . . • 180 

45 Dcrmanyssus gallince, upper surface (Megnin) . 181 

46 Dermanyssus gallincz-, under surface (Megnin) 182 

47 Dermanyssus gallitue, ^^^ and young mite 
(Megnin) ....•• 183 

48 Epidcrmoptes bilobatus, male (Neumann) . 184 

49 Epidermoptes bilobatus, female (Neumann) . 185 

50 Sarcoptes leevis, variety gallirnr, male (Railliet) 186 

51 Sarcoptes Icevis, variety gallince, female (Kailliet) . 187 

52 Sarcoptes Icevis, variety ^a///;/(^, larva (Railliet) 188 

53 Fowl affected with favus (Neumann) . . 1?9 



54 Achorion Schouleinii from favus of poultry 
(Neumann) ...... 190 

55 Sore head (pig'eon pox) inoculated pig-eon (San- 
felice) . . . . . . .193 

56 Sore head (pig-eon pox) inoculated pig-eon (San- 
felice) ...... 193 

57 Skeleton of a fowl (Chauveau) . . . 201 

58 Sarcoptes mutatis, male (Neumann) . . 204 

59 Sarcoptes inutans, female (Railliet) . . . 205 

60 Scabies of the foot (Neumann) . . . 206 

61 Tubercular tumor of the wing (Cadiot and Almy) 209 

62 Tubercular tumor of the head (Cadiot and Almy) 211 

63 Section of liver of bird affected with tuberculosis 
(Sutton) . . . . . . .212 

64 Growth of horn from region of head affected with 
tuberculosis (Krampf) .... 213 

65 Tuberculosis of the foot (Sutton) . . . 215 

66 Diphtheritic exudate over the tongue (Moore, Bur. 
An. Industry) ..... 218 

67 Roof of mouth showing diphtheritic exudate 
(Moore, Bur. An. Industry) .... 223 

68 Bacterium sanguinarium, bouillon culture (Moore, 
Bur. An. Industry) ..... 227 

69 Bacterium sanguiiiariuiii, from liver (Moore. Bur. 
An. Industry) ...... 228 

70 Bacterium sangiciuarium, from spleen of rabbit 
(Moore, Bur. An. Industry) . . . 229 

71 Bacterium sangtiinariion in capillary of fowl's 
liver (Moore, Bur. An. Industry) . . . 230 

72 Bacilli of fowl cholera (Moore, Bur. An. Industry) 237 



CHAPTER I. 



Introduction. 



THE POULTRY INDUSTRY — HEALTH AND DISEASE — THE OR- 
GANS AND APPARATUS AND THEIR FUNCTIONS — COMMON 
CAUSES OF DISEASE — HYGIENIC REQUIREMENTS — DIS- 
INFECTION — OBJECTS OF MEDICAL TREATMENT. 



THE POULTRY INDUSTRY. 

/^^^HE domesticated birds, which we group to- 
/ I gether under the general term " poultry," 
^^^ constitute a very important part of the " farm 
animals " of the country. Their number and 
value are enormous. There were in 1890 according to 
the census 258,871,125 chickens or dung -hill fowls 
and 26,738,515 other domesticated fowls in the United 
States. This gives a total of 285,609,440 individual 
fowls. The number at present in the country is un- 
doubtedly much larger than in 1890. 

The annual earnings of American poultry amount to 
an immense sum, and have been estimated all the way 
from $200,000,000 to $350,000,000. The truth lies 
somewhere between these extremes, but sufhcient data 
has not been collected to enable any one to reach a 
very accurate conclusion. It is certain, however, that 
the poultry industry constitutes one of the most im- 
portant branches of agriculture, and that it is well 



14 DISEASES OF POULTRY. 

worthy of the most careful study and attention. About 
820 million dozens of eggs were returned in the census 
of 1890, with no account of dressed poultry, feathers, 
&c. Nothing relating to such an industrj- is beneath 
the talents or dignit}^ of the most learned and able per- 
sons in the land. It is only the thoughless and igno- 
rant who speak slightingly of the " chicken business," 
or who consider it inferior to any other occupation. 

HEALTH AND DISEASE. 

The success of poultry raising depends upon the 
ability of those engaged in this industry to keep their 
birds thriving, vigorous, and free from disease. From 
an economical point of view birds are machines which 
consume certain kinds of raw material and produce eggs 
and meat. They should be kept in such a condition 
that they can most profitably work this transformation. 
One of the most serious obstacles to profitable poultry 
keeping is the effect of diseases in arresting the pro- 
ductive activity of the flock and in decimating its 
numbers. More failures in the poultry business are 
traceable to disease than to any other cause. A knowl - 
edge of the nature, prevention, and curative treatment 
of the more common diseases of fowls is, therefore, 
essential to success in this industry ; and a treatise on 
this subject for ready reference must necessaril}^ be one 
of the most useful articles in the poultryman's outfit. 
These diseases are treated with considerable detail in 
this volume, but before entering upon the study of the 
individual diseases, it will be of great assistance to get 
a clear idea of what constitutes disease, how it is caused 
and upon what principles it may ])e prevented and 
cured. 

We say a bird is in good health when it appears 



DISEASES OF POULTRY. 15 

lively, has a clear eye, a bright red comb, is quick and 
active in its movements, has a good appetite and when 
the various organs of the body perform their functions 
in the manner in which they are observed to act in all 
birds that are vigorous and thriving. On the other 
hand, we say a bird is diseased when some function or 
functions of its body are not performed as they are in 
the great majority of individuals, or when some organ 
presents an unusual form or appearance. Disease has, 
therefore, been defined as a life the manifestations of 
which deviate more or less from the normal. Practi- 
cally, we say a bird is diseased when we observe that 
ore or more of its functions are not carried on in a 
normal manner, or when we find unusual growths, in- 
juries, or parasites affecting any of its organs. 

THE ORGANS AND APPARATUS AND THEIR FUNCTIONS. 

In the study of disease, one of the most important 
things is to acquire the habit of looking at a bird, not 
as one indivisible object, but as an individual made 
up of many distinct parts, each of which has its special 
function to perform. Thus, we find the beak, the 
tongue, the oesophagus, the crop, the proventriculus, the 
gizzard, the pancreas, the liver, and the intestines, each 
separate and distinct in itself, and each liable to be 
affected by disease. We observe also that these organs 
taken together make up the digestive apparatus and 
that they are associated together for the purpose of 
obtaining, preparing, and assimilating nutritive ma- 
terial for the sustenance of the body as a whole. " We 
are often able to determine that there is something 
wrong with the working of an apparatus before we are 
able to locate the trouble in one or mor^ organs. To 
ascertain the seat of a disease and understand its nature, 



16 DISEASES OF POULTRY. 

we must, consequently, know the different organs of 
the body, we must know what work each organ does, 
and how the organs are associated for the accomplish- 
ment of a common purpose. 

Besides the digestive apparatus, we find in the bird's 
body the nostrils, larynx, trachea, lungs and air-sacs 
which together constitute the respiratory apparatus. 
The principal functions of this apparatus are to supply 
oxygen to the blood and receive in return carbonic acid 
gas and watery vapor. Then, there is the circulatory 
apparatus, composed of the heart, arteries, capillaries, 
veins, and lymphatics, which carries the nourishment 
and the oxygen to every part of the body and brings 
away the waste and worn out material. There is the 
urinary apparatus, made up of the kidneys and the 
ureters, which separates and removes from the blood 
the great part of the waste of the body which can not 
be vaporized and carried away with the air expired 
from the lungs. There is the genital apparatus which 
in the male consists of testes, vas deferens, and, with 
some varieties, a penis, and in the female of ovaries, 
and oviducts, the purpose of this apparatus being the 
reproduction and perpetuation of the species. There is 
the locomotive apparatus and framework of the body, 
made up of the bones, ligaments, muscles, and tendons. 
There is the brain and nervous system which estab- 
lishes communication between and governs the different 
organs and apparatus. And, finally, there is the 
tegumentary system, which includes the skin and 
feathers and the function of which is to cover and pro- 
tect the body, and excrete a certain amount of liquid 
bearing with it some soluble waste products from the 
blood. 



DISEASES OF POULTRY. 17 

COMMON CAUSES OF DISEASE. 

In order to act intelligently for the prevention and 
cure of a disease, we must know something of its cause ; 
and in order to determine the cause, we must know the 
agencies which are liable to injuriously affect the dis- 
eased organ. If it is found that the digestive organs 
are affected, we are naturally led to inquire into the 
character and quantity of food that has been taken ; the 
amount of exercise which the birds have had ; whether 
they have had access to gravel or grit ; whether the 
alimentary canal is obstructed at any point ; whether 
the affected birds have been unduly exposed to cold or 
to draughts of air ; and, finally, whether they have been 
attacked by any of the parasites, vegetable or animal, 
which are known to cause disturbance of the digestive 
functions. If the respiratory organs are diseased, it is 
proper to inquire if the birds have been chilled or ex- 
posed to draughts of air, or to a damp atmosphere; or 
whether they are the prey of parasitic organisms such 
as multiply in this portion of the bird's body. If the 
skin, comb, wattles, or feet are affected, the most likely 
causes are freezing, mechanical injuries, and parasites. 
If lameness is exhibited it is probably due to injuries 
or rheumatism. If the general health is affected as 
shown by mal -nutrition, paleness, and loss of weight, 
the most common causes are indigestion from improper 
food, and the attacks of internal or external parasites. 
Diseases of the brain result from exposure to too great 
heat, and sunstroke, from over exertion, and from too 
high feeding with insufficient exercise. Diseases of 
the ovaries and oviducts result from the bird being too 
fat; from these organs being over -stimulated, or from 
the ration being improperly adjusted to the needs of 
the body. 



18 DISEASES OF POULTRY. 

These are by far the most common causes of disease 
with the domesticated birds. There are other causes, 
such as rupture of a blood vessel from weakness of its 
walls ; the degeneration of the tissues of important 
organs through some obscure influence ; the inexplic- 
able failure of some part of the body to perform its 
functions and the development of abnormal growths. 
These are more commonly observed, however, in old 
birds, and. as financial considerations lead to the fre- 
quent renewal of the poultryman's stock, such forms of 
disease rarely occur and are confined to a ver}' few birds. 

HYGIENIC REQUIREMENTS. 

The conditions required for the maintenance of health 
and vigor in a flock of birds, are similar to what are 
required for other animals. These conditions, how- 
ever, are more important with birds than with quadru- 
peds because the activities of the former are more 
intense. That is to say the bird digests more food in 
proportion to its weight, it breathes more rapidly, its 
blood circulates faster, its temperature is higher, and it 
makes a proportionate increase in weight in a shorter 
time. The bird may, therefore, be compared to a very 
perfect and delicate machine running under a high 
pressure. If properly managed, such a machine gives 
the verj' best results; but if neglected and run under 
improper conditions, it soon fails to be satisfactory 
and may entirel}^ collapse. 

One of the first problems which the poultryman is 
called upon to solve is the location of the poultry plant. 
There are some general principles which are of great 
assistance in considering this question. The building 
or buildings should be upon an elevated spot where 
the drainage is good, and aiiy danger of water settling 



DISEASES OF POULTRY. 19 

under the building during heavy rains should be guard- 
ed against by filling in with a foot or more of earth 
before the construction is commenced. It is a great 
advantage to have soil which contains enough sand to 
prevent the quick formation of mud and which soon 
dries. Dampness in the houses and mud in the yards 
are not favorable conditions for poultry raising. 

The next condition of importance is a proper amount 
of space in the houses and yards. This depends some- 
what upon the size of the birds and whether a shed is 
attached to the house. Houses without sheds should 
have from six to fifteen square feet to each adult bird, 
while those with sheds may be reduced to about one- 
half this space. The yards should be large enough to 
allow exercise in the open air, and large enough to 
supply more grass than the birds will eat. This will 
.vary from 60 to 150 square feet per adult bird. The 
open shed facing the south, where the fowls can be in- 
duced to hunt for their food and take exercise in all 
seasons of the year, and where they can enjoy the 
pleasure of scratching and dusting themselves in the 
sunshine, even during the Winter months, is of great 
assistance in maintaining the health and productive- 
ness of the flock. 

The ventilation of the poultry -house should be pro- 
vided for in such a way that draughts of air will not 
strike the birds. The amount of ventilation required 
will depend largely upon the height of the house, the 
atmospheric temperatvire and the velocity of the wind. 
In northern latitudes, with buildings of moderate 
height, the problem in winter is rather to keep the cold 
out than to let the air in. When the weather is not too 
cold, however, the admission of plenty of fresh air is 
important and particularly so if the walls and roofs of 



20 DISEASES OF POULTRY. 

the houses are made air-tight with one or more laj'ers of 
building paper. There are various methods by which 
such houses may be ventilated without endangering 
the birds with currents of air, but as the details of these 
methods depend largely upon the plan of building 
adopted, they will not be discussed in this volume. 

Cleanliness is an essential sanitary' condition for all 
animals, but particularly so for birds. Accumulations 
of excrement harbor parasites, vitiate the atmosphere 
and breed contagion. The poultry -house should, 
therefore, be constructed with a view to its frequent, 
easy, and thorough cleaning. The roosts and nest 
boxes should be removable, so that all parasites which 
collect upon them maj^ be reached and destroyed. The 
floor should be smooth to permit scraping and sweep- 
ing. Cracks and knot holes should be avoided as they 
furnish a hiding place for parasites. Low boxes con- 
taining dry earth or road dust should be provided in 
which the birds can take a dust bath with regularity. 

DISINFECTION. 

Disinfection is the destruction or removal of in- 
fection. Infection of poultry -houses and runs occurs 
from the introduction of animal and vegetable para- 
sites, including the various microbes and unknown 
forms of contagion. There are no precautions which 
will entirely prevent such infection. The fowls with 
which the flock is started will probably be already in - 
fected with many varieties of parasites. Wild birds and 
various animals or possibly the attandant may bring 
contagion and even the larger animal parasites. Some 
of these parasites multiply in the birds' bodies, others 
breed in the houses, still others pass a portion of their 
life cycle in or upon the soil of the runs. 



DISEASES OF POULTRY. 21 

The longer fowls are kept upon the same premises, 
the more these parasites will increase, and the g^reater 
damage and menace they will be to the flock. System- 
atic and efficient measures must, therefore, be instituted 
and regularly employed in order to keep such pests 
in check, and, if possible, entirely eradicate them. 
Some species of parasites are quite easily controlled, 
but others will tax the ingenuity and skill of the poul - 
try man to the utmost. 

The methods of disinfection applicable to the poul - 
try plant are numerous, and it is important to under- 
stand those which are most available and which can be 
used with least danger to persons and fowls. For the 
inside of the houses, including the roosts and nest 
boxes, hot lime wash is one of the best applications 
and should be used at least twice a year. If thoroughly 
applied, it will destroy both animal parasites and mi- 
crobes. The disinfecting power of lime wash may be 
increased by the addition of one -fourth pound carbolic 
acid to each gallon. When a gaseous disinfectant is 
needed to reach the ceilings of houses and the hang- 
ings of brooders, formalin (formaldehyde) will be 
found by far the most efficient. It may be spraj^ed 
over the inside of the house or brooder in a three 
to five -per -cent solution, and if the doors and win- 
dows are then tightly closed, so that the vapors 
will be confined, every part of the interior of the struct- 
ure will be disinfected. Formalin may now be 
purchased in a forty -per -cent solution and may be 
diluted with water to the desired strength. One pound 
of the solution added to a gallon of water makes a 
mixture of about the proper strength. 

For the destruction of the external animal parasites 
many apply kerosene oil and crude petroleum to the 



22 DISEASES OF POULTRY. 

roosts, but these substances are not to be compared in 
efficiency with hot lime wash. The fowls themselves 
may be. dusted with insect powder or dipped in a creo- 
lin solution (2 per cent), and insect powder may be 
added to the dust baths and strewed in the nests when 
the vermin become troublesome. Other remedies suit- 
able to special conditions will be given in subsequent 
chapters. 

The runs should be occasionally plowed, in order to 
bury the accumulated excrement and parasites, and at 
the same time bring fresh soil to the surface. If this 
does not prove sufficient for the purpose, the soil should 
be covered with a good coating of lime or thoroughl}^ 
saturated with a five -per -cent solution of carbolic acid 
some days before it is plowed, and no fowls allowed 
upon such runs for six months or a year. 

If in spite of these precautions, intestinal worms be- 
come more and more injurious, or if one or more of 
the various diseases caused by fungi, bacteria, or pro- 
tozoa continue to affect the birds, the only resource is 
to move the flock to fresh ground. In starting a new 
flock, or in removing to a new locality to escape para- 
sites, it is a good plan to leave the old birds behind, 
and only take young ones which have been hatched in 
incubators and which have never been outside of clean 
brooders. The adult birds would certainly carry many 
parasites with them, while these 3'oung birds should be 
uninfected. 

OBJECTS OF MEDICAL TREATMENT. 

In the treatment of sick birds, medicines should not be 
administered blindly, but on the contrary there should 
be a clear idea, before the remedy is selected, of what 
is to be accomplished. Otherwise, it is probable that 



DISEASES OF POULTRY. 23 

more harm than good will result. In giving medicines 
intelligently there are three distinct objects which one 
may attempt to accomplish : 

1. To neutralize, remove or destroy the cause of the 
disease. 

2. To cause the repair of the affected tissues. 

3. To counteract or remove the symptoms. 

1. As to the first object mentioned, it is clear that we 
can only direct our remedies towards the cause, when 
that cause continues to act. In catarrh, pneumonia, 
inflammation of the intestines, and other diseases which 
result from exposure to cold, for example, the cause 
may have been a cold draught of air on a windy night. 
When the bird is discovered to be sick, a day or two 
later, the cause is no longer acting. On the other hand, 
in parasitic diseases, the cause continues to act, as a 
rule, until it is destroyed by remedies or by the vital 
processes of the body. These examples are simply ill - 
ustrations of the general fact that there are only a part of 
the diseases that affect birds, in which an attempt can 
be made to reach the cause. 

There are special methods of treatment applicable to 
the epizoa or external animal parasites, and quite diff- 
erent methods for the entozoa or internal animal par- 
asites. Likewise the treatment for epiphytes, or ex- 
ternal vegetable parasites, may differ widely from that 
applied to entophytes or internal vegetable parasites. 
In all these cases, however, we endeavor to remove or 
destroy the cause of the disease. Poisoning may be 
treated upon the some principle; that is, an attempt 
may be made to neutralize, destroy or remove the 
poison. Whenever possible, the remedies should be 
directed to the cause of the disease, since while this con- 
tinues to act a cure is impossible. 



24 DISEASES OF POULTRY. 

2. To secure the repair of the affected tissues is also 
a very important object of medication. Wounds may 
require stimulating or astring^ent treatment; inflamma- 
tions may be reduced by cooling applications or by seda - 
tives ; an anaemic condition is counteracted by tonics; 
the congestion of an internal organ may be relieved by 
inducing increased circulation at the surface of the body 
either by heat or counter -irritation. These are ex- 
amples of treatment applied to relieve the abnormal 
condition and secure the repair of the diseased part. 
When the cause of the disease has ceased to act, this 
line of treatment should be adopted, if possible. 

3. There are, unfortunately, many cases in which it 
is neither possible to adopt treatment for the removal 
of the cause or the repair of the affected part. In such 
cases we are limited to symptomatic medication. The 
effort then is to mitigate the alarming and dangerous 
symptoms. There are many conditions in which such 
a course is of great advantage. Thus, when the forces 
of the body are weakened or exhausted this state may 
be temporarily relieved with stimulants ; when the 
temperature is dangerously high, it may be reduced by 
appropriate remedies ; when pain is severe it may be 
arrested by drugs which act upon the nerves ; when 
there is constipation, laxatives or purgatives maj'' be 
indicated, and when there is purging it may be stopped 
with medicines having the opposite effect; for spas- 
modic contractions of the muscles, there is a class of 
medicines called antispasmodics ; and there are drugs 
which increase the various secretions. It is plain, 
therefore, that while removing the cause of disease, and 
working for the repair of the affected parts are scientific 
and essential plans of treatment, the symptomatic 



DISEASES OF POULTRY. 25 

method, also, has its applications which will be found 
both numerous and important. 

The intelligent treatment of disease will be conducted 
with one or more of these three objects in view. We 
may at the same time apply remedies to destroy a para- 
site, and to allay the irritation or heal the injuries which 
it has caused. It is, also, possible in certain cases to 
simultaneously attack the cause of disease, to treat the 
local injury and to beneficially modify the urgent symp - 
toms. The skill of the practitioner is shown by the re- 
sources with which he is able to meet and overcome the 
varied conditions of disease which confront him at dif- 
ferent times and with different individuals. To be suc- 
cessful he must be able to accurately determine the 
nature of the disease and the condition of the patient. 




CHAPTER II. 



Diseases of the Organs of Respiration. 



STRUCTURE AND FUNCTION — SIMPLE CATARRH — ROUP, CONTA- 
GIOUS CATARRH — BRONCHITIS — THE GAPES, VERMINOUS 
TRACHEO-BRONCHITIS, SYNGAMOSIS — CONGESTION OF 
THE LUNGS, PULMONARY CONGESTION — PNEUMONIA — 
MYCOSIS OF THE AIR-PASSAGES, ASPERGILLOSIS — THE AIR 
SAC MITE. 



STRUCTURE AND FUNCTION. 

(^^^HE respiratory organs of birds differ consider - 
/ I ably from those with which we are familiar in 
^^i^ the Other species of domesticated animals. 
The plan of structure of these organs follows 
more closely the analogous organs of reptiles than it 
does those of mammals. This should not excite sur- 
prise as it is now admitted that birds are descended 
from some animal of the reptilian group. 

The lungs are confined, as they are in the tortoise, 
to the back part of the body cavity, and are firmly 
attached to the ribs and the spaces between these bones. 
Large membranous sacs, communicating with the lungs 
and serving as reservoirs of air, extend to the posterior 
portion of the abdomen and even into the bones. The 
lungs are not suspended freely and divided into lobes 
as we see them in other farm animals, but the}' are 
attached to the back part of the chest and are accu- 



DISEASES OF POULTRY. 



27 




rately molded to the inequalities of the ribs and the 
spaces between the ribs. 

Notwithstanding these resemblances to the sluggish 
cold-blooded animals, the bird's breathing apparatus 
is of the highest order of excellence, and wonderfully 

effective. The lungs are 
comparatively small and 
have little elasticity, but 
there is a compensation for 
these features in the free 
communication with the 
spacious air sacs which 
contain an abundant supply 
of air. 

The upper opening of the 
tr.;chea or windpipe is on 
the floor of the mouth just 
behind the tongue. The 
larynx at the beginning of 
the windpipe, which is such 
a perfect structure in the 
higher mammals, is in birds 
only slightly developed. 
The edges of the larynx ap - 
pear to close together so 
perfectly that no epiglottis 
or lid is necessary. There 
are no vocal cords in the 
larynx as in mammals, and 
therefore this organ cannot 
produce voice, and it only 
raises or lowers a note by bringing together or separat- 
ing the stiff margins of the opening. The true organ 
of voice in birds is the lowerlarynx or syrinx, which is 




Fiff. 1. — Luiifrs of a Bird. 
A. — Lower Surface. 
B. — Upper Surface. 



28 DISEASES OP POULTRY. 

found ill no other class of animals and is situated 
where the trachea divides to form bronchi. 

The two primary bronchi, formed by the division of 
the trachea, penetrate the lungs, branching as they go 
and end in the air sacs which have already been men- 
tioned. The primary branches of the bronchial tubes 
give off secondary branches, and the secondary branches 
in turn send off tertiary branches. These finer branches 
open upon a dense network of minute, almost naked, 
blood vessels, through the delicate walls of which the 
oxj'gen passes to the blood and the carbonic acid and 
other vapors escape. 

There are in all nine air sacs, four on each side, and 
one (the interclavicular) which has been formed b3^the 
union of another pair. These are named the cer\nc5l, 
the interclavicular, the anterior thoracic, the posterior 
thoracic, and the abdominal sacs. With many birds 
the air sacs extend into the humerus or large bone of 
the wing, with some, into the breastbone, the thigh 
bone, and even other bones of the body. The air sacs 
act principally as reservoirs of air, feeding the lungs 
between the periods of inspiration and ensuring an 
abundant air supply at all times. There is possiblj^ 
some oxj^genation of the blood through their walls, 
and the}^ serve in addition to reduce the weight of the 
body. 

Nearlj^ all the moisture which escapes from the bird's 
body passes off through the respirator}^ organs. With 
mammals, a large proportion of the liquid taken into 
the bod}' is evaporated from the surface of the skin, 
and this process serves as an efficient regulation of the 
body temperature. A considerable amount of liquid is 
also excreted by the kidneys of such animals. In birds 
the secretion of the kidneys contains but a small quan- 



DISEASES OF POULTRY. 29 

tity of water, and the skin has no sweat glands, so that 
but an insignificant amount of moisture is evaporated 
from the external surface of the body. The lungs and 
air sacs of bij-ds mist, therefore, perform not only the 
duties which devolve upon the respiratory organs of 
mammals, but also largely those of the kidneys and 
skin as well. 

On the whole, the bird's respiratory apparatus is 
very perfect and more active than that of any mam- 
mal. The quantity of carbonic acid exhaled is very 
large, the breathing is rapid, and the oxidation of the 
blood is necessarily thorough to maintain the high 
temperature of the bird's body. With all of this, birds 
are capable of great and prolonged muscular exertion ; 
the " wind " of the Homing Pigeon, for instance, being 
something remarkable. 

The intimate connection which exists between the 
bronchi and air sacs readily permits of the extension of 
a disease process from one to the other, and parasites 
or parasitic diseases may be common to both. Injured 
birds may even breathe through a broken humerus 
which has pierced the skin, when their windpipes are 
obstructed with blood and impermeable to air. In this 
case the air is drawn into the lungs through the inter- 
clavicular air sac instead of penetrating by way of the 
trachea and bronchi. The respiratory apparatus of 
birds differs, therefore, to a remarkable extent from 
that of other animals, in structure, in function, and in 
the development and extension of the diseases to which 
it is subject. 

SIMPLE CATARRH. 

One of the most common diseases of birds is catarrh. 
It is sometimes mild, attacks but a few birds in a flock 
and is easily overcome. At other times it is more 



30 DISEASES OF POULTRY. 

severe, affects all or nearlj' all the birds in a flock and 
only yields to energetic and prolonged treatment. In 
case of. long -continued cold and damp weather, birds 
in different flocks may be affected at the same time, 
leading to the suspicion of an infectious disease, 
although it is reall}' due to climatic conditions acting 
over a large territory' at the same time. It is important 
to make a careful examination as soon as the disease 
appears and to determine whether it is simple catarrh 
or infectious catarrh, as the treatment to be adopted 
in the two cases differs materiall}'. 

Symptoms. — In simple, non-contagious catarrh, the 
affected birds are more or less dull, they are disinclined 
to move, their appetites are diminished, they sneeze and 
the mucous membrane is thickened, causing some ob- 
struction to breathing through the nostrils. There soon 
appears a thin, watery discharge which later becomes 
thicker and glutinous, the ej^es are often watery, the 
eyelids swollen and sometimes held together by a thick, 
viscid secretion. In very severe cases, the birds are 
somnolent, the plumage is erect and roughened, the 
nostrils are completelj^ obstructed by the thick sec- 
retion, the breathing is entirely through the mouth 
and is accompanied by a wheezing or snoring sound, 
the appetite is entirel}' lost, a thin liquid escapes from 
the mouth and the bird soon becomes exhausted a::d 
dies. In the milder cases simple catarrh maj' disappear 
without treatment, in the course of two or three days; 
or, in case the cause is allowed to persist, the birds 
may become worse and die, or the disease may be- 
come chronic and continue its effects for a long time. 

Causation. — Simple catarrh is the result of undue 
exposure to cold and dampness or to draughts of air. It 
is most commonly seen where the houses are damp and 



DISEASES OF POULTRY. 31 

filthy, with cracks and openings, through which the wind 
blows upon the fowls, or with birds that have been 
exposed to unusual cold and draughts in the show -room 
or during shipment from one place to another. The 
birds most apt to be affected are those having their 
strength already impaired by insufficient or innutritions 
food, by lack of exercise or by the attacks of parasites. 
Treatment. — Catarrh is best prevented by keeping 
the birds in a strong, vigorous condition through proper 
exercise, good food, clean houses and ventilation with- 
out draughts. In case symptoms of this disease are 
observed, search out and remove the cause, and give 
the birds stimulating food with some cayenne pepper 
mixed into it. 

If the disease appear^ serious, wash out the mouth 
and nostrils twice a day with boric acid solution of the 
strength of fifteen grains to the ounce of water, or 
creoline solution ( one per cent ) . The following remedy 
is highly recommended by Megnin : 

Gentian root .... 4 drams. 

Ginger 4 

Sulphate of iron ... 2 " 
Hj^posulphite of sodium .1 
Salicylate of sodium . . 1 " 
These substances are to be pulverized and then 
thoroughly mixed. The dose is three or four grains a 
day for a medium -sized fowl. Its effects are stimulat- 
ing and tonic. 

ROUP, CONTAGIOUS CATARRH. 

Although much has been written upon the subject of 
roup, the scientific studies of the disease have been in- 
complete and there is still much difference of opinion 
as to its nature. It is particularly difficult, from pres- 



32 DISEASES OF POULTRY. 

ent knowledge, to say positively whether contagious 
catarrh and diphtheria are essentially one and the same 
disease or whether they constitute two distinct and un- 
related plagues. Considering only the symptoms, it is 
possible to draw a sharp and definite line, as most 
veterinary writers have done, placing on the one side 
all those outbreaks which have only catarrhal manifes- 
tations, and on the other those which clearly show diph- 
theritic patches with false membranes. Dr. Moore's 
investigations seem to indicate that both diseases are 
caused by the same germ, the only difference being in 
the grade of virulence. If this inference should prove 
correct, it would justify the common usage of applying 
the term roup to both forms of disease. At present, 
however, it appears preferable and in accordance with 
the preponderance of evidence to describe them as two 
diseases rather than as two forms of the same disease. 

Symptoms. — The early symptoms of this disease 
can not be clearly distinguished from those of simple 
catarrh, though the dulness and prostration are 
usvially greater and there is often a peculiar offensive 
odor, which are valuable points to aid in reaching 
a decision. There is at first a thin, water3^ discharge 
from the nostiils with some obstruction to breathing 
from swelling of the mucous membrane. The dis- 
charge soon b3C0mes thicker and more sticky or 
glutinous, causing the affected birds to sneeze and 
shake their heads in an effort to free the air passages. 
The subjects are dull, quiet, without much appetite 
and more or less feverish. The plumage is rough, the 
wings pendant, the comb and wattles dark red. 

As the disease advances, the inflammation extends, 
from the mucous membrane of the nostrils along the 
internal surface of the passage connecting the nostrils 



DISEASES OF POULTRY. 



33- 



with the orbital space or cavity surrounding the ej^es. 
The orbital space in birds is relatively very large and 
has an angular projection towards the point of the beak. 
There is, consequentl}'-, considerable space between the 
eye -ball and the bony walls surrounding it, which is 
known as the orbital space or orbital sinus. This 
space is lined with a mucous membrane which is con- 
tinuous with that of the nostrils and in such close rela- 
tions with it that an inflammatory process readily ex- 
tends from one to the other. Very often in roup, this 
membrane is inflamed throughout these passages, and 
the process is so acute that the surface becomes eroded 
and ulcerated. The secretion, instead of remaining 

fluid as in simple ca - 
tarrh, changes at this 
period, is abundant, 
thick, yellowish pu- 
rulent, and cheesy. 
This secretion ac- 
cumulates and ob - 
structs the passages. 
It forms around the 
eye and forces the 
eye -ball out of the 
socket and at the 
same time collects 
under the eyelids or 
on the corner, some- 
times simulating a 
false membrane. It, also, plugs the nasal passages, 
presses down the palate, obstructs the breathing and 
may prevent swallowing. 

The affected birds in the advanced stages of the 
disease present a most miserable appearence. The 




F\g. 2. 



-Head of bird affected with 
contag'ious catarrh. 



34 DISEASES OF POULTRY. 

beak is kept open in order to breathe, the sight is de- 
stroyed by inflammatorj'- products, the eyes are often 
closed and bulging from the head, the breathing is very 
difficult, a thick, sticky discharge escapes from the 
nostrils, the subjects are emaciated, prostrated, sleepy 
and perhaps unconscious. When these severe symp- 
toms appear, the strength is soon exhausted and death 
follows. 

Contagious catarrh spreads rapidly through a flock, 
affecting the greater part of the birds and causing the 
death of a variable proportion according to the viru- 
lence of the contagion. It is always a very serious 
disease and is difficult to eradicate. 

Causation. — That roup is a contagious disease 
admits of no question. Its origin in a flock can fre- 
quently be traced to the introduction of a bird from 
some other premises where the disease exists. Often, it 
is contracted by exposure to affected birds at shows, 
or to the contagion clinging to coops, houses or 
infected runs. Many writers teach that roup may 
originate from exposure to cold or draughts of air. 
This prevalent opinion is probably accounted for by 
the fact that the first stages of roup are almost identical 
in their symptoms with simple catarrh or a common 
cold. .It is not likely, however, that such exposure is 
sufficient to produce roup. Contagious diseases are 
caused by parasites, each specific disease having its 
particular species of animal or vegetable life to call it 
into existence, and without its particular parasite the 
disease cannot be developed. It is, therefore, logical 
to conclude that if the germ or parasite of roup is not 
already infecting a given poultry yard, the disease will 
not appear until this parasite is introduced. Colds and 
catarrh may become aggravated and even fatal by neg- 



DISEASES OF POULTRY. 35 

lect and continued exposure to the existing causes, but 
they .will not develop into roup unless the contagion of 
the last named disease is present. 

The exact species of organism which causes roup 
can not be certainly determined from the investigations 
so far made. A bacterial organism resembling the 
bacillus of fowl cholera and that of rabbit septicaemia 
has been isolated from some outbreaks. Whether this 
organism or some other form of microscopic life con- 
stitutes the contagion makes little difference to the 
practical poultry man. The recognition of the exist- 
ence of contagion in some form is the most important 
thing. 

Roup is a contagious disease which is localized upon 
the mucous membranes of birds. That is, the micro- 
scopic parasite which causes the disease, develops and 
multiplies upon and within the mucous membranes of 
affected birds; escapes from their bodies with the dis- 
charge from the nostrils and eyes; soils their feathers, 
and, also, the litter and other objects about them; 
when dried it is dissipated throughout the surrounding 
air in the form of dust by every movement of the bird, 
or of the soiled objects, and by every breeze that dis- 
turbs the contaminated surfaces. This dust, contain- 
ing the germs of the disease, as it floats in the air is 
drawn into the nostrils with the breath or lodges within 
the eye. When the germs reach the moist and warm 
surfaces of the membranes lining the nostrils or eyes, 
they find favorable conditions for their continued mul- 
tiplication. They penetrate the membrane, set up irri- 
tation and inflammation, and as a result of this action 
there follow catarrh, ulceration and the formation of 
purulent and cheesy deposits about the head. 

Treatment. — The measures to be adopted for the 



36 DISEASES OF POULTRY. 

prevention c : roup are tne same as lor other contagious 
diseases. Exclude the contagion by every means that 
can be. devised. Do not allow poultry, animals or men 
to come directly from an infected premises to a healthy 
flock. Be careful in buying new birds, and these as 
well as all birds that have been to shows should be 
isolated for two or three weeks until their healthfulness 
is demonstrated. If the disease once appears in the 
flock use disinfectants freely and isolate diseased indi- 
viduals. If the birds are not very valuable it is some- 
times better to dispose of every one, and after disin- 
fection begin with new blood. The contagion is per- 
sistent and can only be eradicated by the most thorough 
measures. 

The medical treatment maj^ be undertaken with good 
chances of success, but requires time and constant 
attention. Whether it will pay, depends upon the 
value of the birds and of the services of the party who 
cares for them. Antiseptic and healing applications 
are indicated to the interior of the nostrils, the cleft of 
the palate, the eye, and other affected parts. If swell- 
ings containing thick pus or cheesy matter form upon 
the head, they should be opened with a sharp instru- 
ment, the contents removed and the wound treated 
with antiseptics. Antiseptic powders are convenient 
for treating the wounds caused in such operations. 
Among these iodoform and aristol are the best. The 
wound may be kept filled with either of these powders 
until it is healed. The antiseptic solutions may be 
injected into the nostrils or into the cleft in the roof of 
the mouth which communicates with the nostrils, by 
using a small syringe, a medicine dropper, or even an oil 
can, such as is used for oiling machinery. A syringe is, 
of course, the best. The solutions most suited are boric 



DISEASES OF POULTRY. 37 

acid fifteen grains to the ounce of water ; carbolic acid or 
creoline in two per cent solution; peroxide of hydro- 
gen diluted with an equal quantity of water; perman- 
ganate of potash one grain to the ounce ; or sulphate 
of copper five grains to the ounce. Some persons have 
reported great success from the use of coal oil (kero- 
sene) either pure or diluted with equal parts of olive 
oil. Megnin has had excellent results with a five per 
cent solution of sulphate of copper injected into the 
nostrils, the cleft of the palate, the affected eyes and 
the wounds made in removing purulent collections from 
the sinus in front of the eyes. This solution appears 
rather strong and should be used at first with care and 
in an experimental way until its effects are seen. 
When the head shows signs of considerable inflam- 
mation it may be anointed with sweet (olive) oil, vase- 
line, or equal parts of sweet oil and coal oil. 

In selecting from the remedies mentioned, it is well 
to begin with the milder ones, such as boric acid, per- 
oxide of hydrogen or carbolic acid. Keep the birds 
comfortable and free from draugths of air. Give stimu - 
lating and easily digested food containing a small pro- 
portion of meat scrap. One writer, Mr. Mapes, believes 
that he has controlled the disease effectually with a 
properly balanced ration. It is important to dispose of 
the carcasses of dead birds promptly by burning or deep 
burial. 

BRONCHITIS. 

Causation. — Inflammation of the mucous mem- 
brane of the trachea and bronchial tubes, or bronchitis, 
is sometimes due to the extension of the catarrhal pro - 
cess from the head, or it may be induced by the action 
of the causes which produce catarrh. The most fre- 
quent of these causes are exposure to dampness, to 



38 



DISEASKS OF POULTRY. 



cold, to draughts of cold air, and to sudden and extreme 
changes of temperature. This disease may, also, re- 
sult from the inhalation of irritating vapors, dust, and 
other foreign substances. A careful discrimination 
should be made between bronchitis arising from such 
causes and that due to contagious catarrh ( roup ) , tuber - 
culosis, gape worms, and the aspergillus fungus. 

Symptoms. — The birds are some- 
what dull, with loss of ap])etite, ac- 
celerated breathing and cough. On 
listening to the respiration a blow- 
ing or whistling sound may be heard 
in the air tubes, in the early stages 
of the disease, caused by the air 
lieing drawn over the dry and thick - 
ened membrane ; later, a rattling oi 
bubbling sound is heard caused by 
air passing through accunuilations 
of mucus. In the majority of cases 
the symptoms are not serious, and, 
under favorable conditions, they 
soon disappear. Occasionally, the 
malady increases in intensity, the 
])lumage becomes rough, the wings 
droop, the breathing is labored and 
difficult, the bird frequently opens 
its beak in order to obtain sufliicient air, it is sbepy, 
torpid and exhausted. In such severe forms of the 
disease a large proportion of the affected birds die. 

Treatment. — The first indication in simple bron- 
chitis is to place the affected birds in a comfortable, 
dry and reasonablj^varm place, where the}^ will not be 
subjected to draughts of air, but where the ventilation 
is good . Give soft and cool ing food , such as stale bread ^ 




Fitf. 3. - Rifjrht luiisr 
(if a yoosf, ti, primary 
bronchus; Z'/', openitifrs 
throuyli which conimii- 
nicatioii is establislu'd 
with tlie air sacs; <<■, 
secoiularv bronchi. 



DISEASES OF POULTRY. 



39 



or a mixture of bran and middlings moistened with 
milk. Inhalation of steam, or vapor from boiling water 
in which hops or a small quantity of carbolic acid 
or creoline has been placed, is beneficial. Giv^e with 
the food two grains of black antimony twice a day. A 

small quantity of 
flax seed steeped 
in hot water 
makes a demul- 
cent drink that 
often gives great 
relief ; and, in the 
absence of this, 
honey or gum 
arable may be 
added to the 
drinking water 
wich advantage. 
If the attack pro - 
mises to be 
severe, it may 
sometimes be 
checked in the 
early stages by 
giving ten drops 
of spirits of 

Fig-. 4. — Lung- of a bird represented in ideal Ion- . 

pitudinal section ; «<?, secondary bronchi. B, dense tUrpeUtUie lH 3. 
network of minute blood vessels which makes up r i r 

the greater part of the lung- tissue and to which the teaspOOllIUl OI 
tertiary bronchi convey the air. ^ -i i 

castor Oil and re- 
peating this dose after five or six hours. It should not 
be continued after there are signs of purging, for fear 
of exhausting the strength of the patient. In the very 
acute cases, where the whistling or snoring sounds with 
the respiration indicate a croupous form of inflam- 




40 DISEASES OF POULTRY. 

mation, and where the gasping shows great obstruction 
of the air passage, relief may be obtained by giving from 
three to six drops of either the sj-rup orthe wineof ipecac. 
Medicines should be administered very carefully in 
diseases affecting the trachea and bronchi, as other- 
wise the}' maj' enter the air passages and increase the 
irritation. 

THE GAPES, VERMINOUS TRACHEO -BRONCHITIS, 
SVNGAMOSIS. 

The gapes is a parasitic disease of birds, caused by 
the presence in the trachea or windpipe, of a worm 
called the Syyigamiis trachealis. The most prominent 
symptom of this disease is frequent gaping, and from 
this characteristic the affection takes its name. 

History. — The gapes appears to have been first oh - 
served and described as occurring in this United States. 
This disease was seen by Dr.Wiesenthalinl799, atBalti- 
more, Md. , where he states it affected hens and turkeys. 
It was reported by Georges Montagu as prevailing 
among chickens in England from 1806 to 1809. This 
author believed that "chickens were the only occupants 
of the poultry j'ard which become its victims, since he 
observed turkeys and ducks living on the same premises 
with infested chickens but remaining free from the 
disease. He observed that pheasants were similarlj' 
affected at the period when the appearance of the plum- 
age changes so that the sexes can be distinguished. 
He also saw the disease in partridges. 

Both Wiesenthal and Montagu recognized that the 
disease was caused by worms which inhabited the 
trachea, producing inflammation and obstructing the 
passage of the air. 

This disease has been very prevalent among fowls 



DISEASES OF POULTRY. 41 

and game lairds in England during the last twentj'-five 
years ; and it has been estimated that it destro3^s, there, 
half a million chickens annually, in addition to the 
losses among game and other birds. It has, also, 
caused serious losses in France for more than forty 
years, and undoubtedly exists in many other countries. 
In the United States, it has become one of the most 
common and most troublesome diseases of young 
chickens and j'oung turkeys, but adult birds as a rule 
do not suffer from it. A number of species of wild 
birds are susceptible to this disease as well as the 
domesticated birds. 

Causation. — The single cause of gapes is the para- 
sitic worm known as the Syugamus trachealis. This 
worm is represented in Fig. 5, a being the male and b 
the female. The two sexes are usually joined together 
in a permanent manner by the union of the integuments, 
as shown in the figure. 

The sjmgamus is a small round worm, red in color, 
and both the male and female are found attached by 
their mouths to the mucous membrane of the bird's 
trachea. The female is slightly more than one -half 
inch in length, while the male is only one -fifth inch. 

They suck the blood of the bird, which forms their 
nourishment, and, in doing this, set up considerable ir- 
ritation and even inflammation. The large and vig- 
orous birds are not seriously disturbed by the presence 
of this parasite, particularly if the worms are not very 
numerous. Small and weak birds, however, are un- 
able to successfully resist the combined effect of the 
loss of blood, the inflammation of the trachea, and 
the obstructed respiration. The strength is rapidly 
lost, and the windpipe becomes obstructed until finally 
the bird dies of exhaustion or asphyxia. 



42 



DISEASES OF POULTRY. 

C a 




In Fig. 6 D the 
wcrms are shown 
attached to the 
mucous membrane 
of the trachea. 
This is a drawing 
from the windpipe 
of a pheasant, that 
has been slit open 
to show the worms 
as they are found 
in affected birds. 
In this bird about 
thirty pairs of 
worms were found 
in various stages of 
development , and 
it can be seen that the obstruction 
of the air passage was almost or 
quite complete. A larger drawing 
of a pair of worms is seen in Fig. 7 
E, which also illustrates the attach- 
ment of the worms by means of their 
mouths to the mucous membrane of 
the trachea. A pair of worms is 
shown still more enlarged in Fig. 5 , in order to give some 



Fig-. 5.— A pair of 
syngrames (eiilargred 
seven diameters); a, 
male; b, female; A, 
mouth of female seen 
from its face ; B, 
mouth of female seen 
from itt) side. 



DISEASES OF POULTRY. 



43 







Fig-. (1.— D, trachea of pbeasant opened to show syngames (two-thirds nat" 
ural size). I, ova in different stages of development, a, segmented vitellus» 
/>. granular vitellus becoming constricted at middle, r. ovum with embryo 
fully developed, li, ovum with valve at extremity detached and embryo 
emerging; K, embryos, «, directly after leaving egg, h, undergoing the first 
molt, r, nymph with rudiments of genital organ showing at .v; L, diagram 
illustrating manner of removing syngames with wire, horse-hairor feather. 



44 DISEASES OF POULTRY. 

idea of their structure. The cup -shaped mouth, techni - 
call y called the buccal capsule, the oesophagus and the in - 
testinal canal can be easily made out. In the female, b, 
can be faintly seen the uterus and its horns filled with 
ova, or eggs, and coiled around the uterus and intes- 
tines is the clearl 5' -defined ovarian tube. In the male 
a the elongated testicle is shown coiled about the diges- 
tive tube. A, shows the mouth of the female as 
seen from its face; and B, shows the same part as 
seen from the side. 

The reproductive organs of the female are seen in 
Fig. 7 G, in which a represents the uterus, bb the uterine 
horns, re oviducts or Fallopian tubes, and r/^/ ovaries. 
The reproductive organs of the male are shown in Fig. 7 
H, a being spicules, b spermatic canal, c vesicula semi- 
nalis, and d testes. Fig. 6 I, is a drawing of the ova, or 
eggs, in different stages of development. The seg- 
mented vitellus appears at <7 ; at b the vitellus is granu- 
lar and becoming constricted at its middle, the embryo 
developing laterally, c shows the ovum with embryo 
fully developed and folded like the figure 8, d the ovum 
with the valves at the extremities detached and the 
embryo emerging. 

The characters of the embryos are clearly shown in 
Fig. 6 K, where a represents the embryo directl}' after it 
leaves the egg ; b is an embrj'o somewhat older and 
undergoing the first molt; c is the n3'mph, the rudi- 
ments of the genital organ showing at x. 

Young birds become infected with this parasite either 
by eating the adult worms, containing eggs, which are 
coughed up b}' affected birds, or b}' taking the em- 
bryos with the food or drink. It is not necessary that 
the syngamus should pass an}' period of its existence 
outside of the bird's body, although it is capable of 



DISEASES OF POULTRY. 



45 





Fig.7.—Sy>/g'amus/rac/tca//'!;Q, reproductive organs of female (enlarged 
six diameters) ; <?, uterus, /ifr, uterine horns, cc, oviducts, iW, ovaries; H, 
reproductive org-ans of male, «, spicules, f', spermatic canal, c, vesicula 
seminalis, (/, testes; £, pair of syngames, illustrating attachment to the 
mucous membrane. 



46 DISEASES OF POULTRY. 

living and partially developing under such conditions. 
The eggs nia)^ escape from the adult female worm in 
the trachea of the bird and these eggs may hatch and 
the embryo develop in the trachea of the same bird. 
Hence this is a parasitic disease in which the parasites 
may continue to develop and increase indefinitely in 
the body of the host, after the first infection has 
occurred. As the syngamus does not lay its eggs, 
however, and as these are only freed by the rupture of 
the body of the adult worm, usually after its death, the 
most frequent course of reinfection must be through the 
digestive organs of the bird. 

When the adult egg -bearing worms are coughed up 
by diseased birds, these worms are eagerly seized and 
devoured by chickens or grown fowls. In such cases, 
while the worm is no doubt digested and destroyed in 
the alimentary canal of the chicken, the eggs which it 
contained are hatched and some of the embryos find their 
way to the trachea of the bird. It is not known how 
these embryos travel from the digestive organs to the 
trachea. No doubt the path is a difficult and danger- 
ous one for them; because, although there are some 
thousands of eggs in the adult worms, ten or fifteen 
worms have been fed to a single chicken, and, as a 
result, not over four or five embryos would reach and 
develop in the trachea. Probably a great many of the 
eggs pass through the intestines and are voided with 
the excrement before they hatch. 

The eggs, or the embryos, or both, of the syngamus 
are undoubtedl}' scattered over the grounds where the 
infested chickens run. Some of these pass through the 
digestive organs and are scattered with the excrement 
as just suggested ; others are coughed up and out of the 
mouth, or the adult worms may be coughed up, and 



DISEASES OF POULTRY. 



47 




Fig. 8. — Chicken affected with g-apes. 

the eggs and embryos are set free by the disintegra- 
tion of the worm. The eggs require warmth and 
moisture to hatch, and similar conditions are needed 
for the life of the embryos. These newly -hatched em- 
bryos may be at once taken up by birds, with contami- 
nated food or drink, and thus cause infection; or they 
may be taken into the digestive canal of earth worms, 
as has been shown by Walker, and be carried for some 
time bj^ such earth worms. It has been shown conclu- 
sively that earth worms from infected poultry runs will 
cause gapes if fed to chickens. Whether or not the 
earth worm plays an important part in sheltering and 
protecting the embryos of the syngamus and in thus 
maintaining the infection upon certain premises is not 
definitel}^ known. 

Walker considers the earth worm a very important 



48 DISKASKS OF POULTRY. 

factor in keeping up infection, and has proposed the 
destruction of these worms by saturating the soil with 
a solution of common salt. Whether this will kill or 
drive away the earth worms which are in the soil has 
not been satisfactorily demonstrated. 

Symptoms. — The disease is observed most frequently 
in young l)irds from one to four weeks old. The 
affected individuals are seen to be less lively than 
usual ; they extend the head frequently and widely 
open the beak — that is, they gape. If watched, they 
are seen to gape every miiuite or two, and as the dis- 
ease progresses, this gaping is repeated .several times a 
minute. 

The birds soon begin to cough, making a siulden, 
whistling sound something like a sneeze, whitish 
mucus may be rejected from the nostrils or mouth, or 
worms (syngames) may be coughed up. If badly 
affected the birds ])ecome anaemic and weak ; the 
feathers are roughened ; the wings droop ; the neck is 
shortened or drawn up, except when extended for 
gaping; the bird shakes its head, often convulsively, 
as if trying to get rid of a foreign liody in its throat. 
The affected l)irds are no longer al)le to kee]) up with 
the flock to which they belong, they lag behind, stop 
as if exhausted, stand with closed ej^es and allow them- 
selves to be easily caught. At this ])eriod they are 
liable to attacks of suffocation, from which they may 
die suddenly. Others apparently die from weakness 
and exhaustion. 

The stronger birds, particularly if only infested with 
a few worms, and the older and larger birds, are not 
so severely affected. They gape occasionally, but their 
general health is not impaired. Their strength is re- 



DISKASKS OF POULTRY. 49 

tained, they search for and take the usual quantity of 
food and they soon regain their former activity. 

The nature of the disease may be readily determined 
from the symptoms aliove enumerated. If, however, 
there is any doubt, the trachea of a bird which has 
died from the disease should be slit o])en and examined 
for the syngamus. In case no birds have died, one of 
the methods for extracting the worms from the trachea 
of the livinj^ bird should ])e tried (see treatment) . It 
is important to the poultryman that the nature of the 
disease should be detected as soon as possible after it 
appears upon his premises in order that precautions 
may be taken to sto]) the spread of the infection and to 
eradicate it from the ])lace. 

Tri<:atment. — Separate the sick l)irds from the well 
ones as soon as the dise'ase is detected and clean up 
the coops, pens and houses where they have been. 

Disinfect all these places and also the drinkingtroughs 
or cups with a five per cent solution of crude carbolic 
acid or with boiling water. Burn the l^odies of the 
birds which die. Keep the infected birds in a house 
which can ])e easily cleaned and disinfected, and see 
that this house is kept disinfected with hot water or 
five per cent carbolic acid solution. Megnin recom- 
mends for disinfecting enclosures and contaminated 
runs, sprinkling with a solution of one part of salicylic 
or sulphuric acid in one hundred of water. Provide 
pure water and uninfected food. 

By careful manipulation the worms may often Ije re- 
moved from the trachea and the chicken radically cured 
in that way. To accomplish this either a feather or a 
long hair from the horse's tail may be used. If a feather 
is selected it is stripped of the web except near the tip. 
This may be used dry or it may be moistened with coal 



50 DISEASES OF POULTRY. 

oil or oil of turpentine. If a horse-hair is to be used 
it is folded and the two ends twisted together so as to 
leave a small loop at the folded extremity. To extract 
the worms the chicken's mouth is forced open with the 
fingers of the left hand (Fig. 6 L,) and, when the glottis 
opens for breathing, the feather or hair is thrust into 
the opening and downward into the trachea. It is then 
turned or twisted around several times and withdrawn, 
when one or more worms may be found adhering to it, 
or in other cases are coughed up, having been loosened 
by the feather or hair. These worms should all be 
burned as they are capable of spreading the infection. 
Great care should be used in these manipulations as 
the larynx and trachea are very tender and sensitive 
and are liable to serious injury from a broken or rough 
feather; or the bird may be suffocated by obstructing 
the breathing for too long a time. 

Internal treatment is highly recommended by some 
authorities. Megnin had excellent results in treating 
affected pheasants with garlic. He made a mixture 
consisting of hard-boiled eggs, boiled beef's heart, the 
crumbs of stale bread and salad. These ingredients 
were chopped, pounded and thoroughly mixed so as to 
make a paste. To this paste was added pounded garlic 
in the proportion of one bulb to ten pheasants each day, 
the garlic being thoroughly distributed through the 
paste. This mixture was greatly relished by the birds. 
Others who tried this remedy found that the birds re- 
fused to eat it, but that they would eat garlic in the 
form of a salad. Megnin also recommends assafoetida, 
seven and one -half grains daily to a pheasant, used as 
a powder combined with an equal quantity of yellow 
pulverized gentian and mixed with the paste that was 



DISEASES OF POULTRY. 51 

fed to the birds. He asserts that this treatment suc- 
ceeded completely within a few days. 

Some have obtained satisfactory results by adminis- 
tering camphor in the form of pills, the dose being one - 
half to one grain twice a day. Others have succeeded 
with sulphur, giving one to three grains at a dose. 

Those engaged in raising birds should depend rather 
on prevention than cure. The value of a three-weeks- 
old chicken is not sufficient to justify a great expendi- 
ture of time in its treatment. The effort should be 
made to place the young birds on uninfected ground, 
or the runs should be kept thoroughly disinfected. On 
the first appearance of the disease remove and isolate 
the affected birds and take the necessary precautions to 
secure the destruction of all the parasites they contain. 
By such measures the propagation of the worm will be 
prevented and the extension of the disease will be 
avoided, 

SYNGAMUS BRONCHIALIS. 

A worm closely related to the Syngavms trachealis 
has been described in Europe as affecting young ducks 
and goslings. It is found in the finer bronchial tubes 
preventing the ingress of air and causing death from 
asphyxia. It sets up much irritation and even causes 
croupal pneumonia. The symptoms are similar to 
those caused by the Syngamus trachealis, but more 
violent, and sudden deaths due to obstruction of the 
air tubes are common. This worm has been named 
the Syngarmis bronchialis, and is combated by the pre- 
ventive measures and internal remedies recommended 
for the SyngajHiis trachealis. 

CONGESTION OF THE LUNGS, PULMONARY 
CONGESTION. 

Congestion of the lungs, or engorgement of the pul- 



52 DISEASES OF POULTRY. 

monary blood-vessels is a disease which quite fre- 
quently affects birds that are molting, and also young 
chickens, ducks, goslings, pheasants, and cage birds. 
The distention of the' blood-vessels which are very 
abundant in the lungs, causes pressure upon the finer 
bronchi and air cells and may lead to death from as 
phyxia. Or there may be rupture of the vessels and 
the escape of blood, which blocks up the bronchi and 
alveoli and collects in the air sacs. In either case death 
soon results. 

Causation. — This disease is generally caused by 
exposure to cold and the chilling of the surface of the 
body, which leads to contraction of the external blood- 
vessels and forces an undue amount of blood into the 
internal organs. It is seen in fowls that are molting 
and which are exposed to cold draughts or rain while 
the skin is over -sensitive and partially denuded. It 
also occurs in young birds which, for any reason, are 
not kept sufficiently warm. It is common among 
young chickens and turkeys allowed to run out in the 
rains of early Spring, and among incubator chicks that 
are allowed to get chilled. 

Congestion of the lungs may also occur in full-fed, 
plethoric birds from over -abundance and too great 
richness of the blood. This liquid then becomes thick 
and circulates with more difficulty than when in a 
normal condition; the delicate vessels in the lungs be- 
come clogged, distended and finally ruptured. This 
form of the disease is the result of improper feeding 
and lack of exercise and is seen most frequently in 
cage birds. 

Symptoms. — The affected bird breathes rapidly and 
with difficulty. It is indisposed to move, stupid, sleepy, 
and does not notice what is going on about it. Thick 



DISEASES OF POULTRY. 53 

mucus tinged with blood may escape from the mouth. 
The comb is dark red or bluish from lack of oxygen 
in the blood. The symptoms appear suddenly and the 
bird lives but a few minutes or hours. 

Treatment. — The treatment of congestion of the 
lungs in birds must consist entirely of measures for its 
prevention, since the course of the disease, when it has 
once developed, is exceedingly rapid and fatal. Young 
birds and fowls which are molting should be guarded 
from exposure and cold, particularly when wet. Birds 
in confinement should be given a varied ration with 
green food, roots, or fruit and plenty of exercise. 
When birds are dying from any cause a careful exami- 
nation of the carcasses should 1:)e made. If the lungs 
are found very dark in color and di.stended with blood, 
particularly if blood has escaped into the bronchi and 
air sacs from ruptured vessels, this indicates the nature 
of the disease and should lead to the adoption of proper 
measures of prevention. Medical treatment of sick 
birds is impracticable on account of the rapid progress 
of the disease. 

PNEUMONIA, INFLAMMATION OF THE LUNGS. 

One of the most common diseases with our four- 
footed animals is inflammation of the lungs, technically 
called pneumonia, but this malady appears to be much 
less common with birds. Some veterinarians who 
have given considerable study to this subject state that 
they have nev^er seen typical pneumonia in these 
creatures. There is no doubt, however, that it does 
occur quite frequentljs and that it is essentially the 
same in symptoms, nature, and effect as the pneumonia 
of mammals. 

Pneumonia is an alteration of the lungs which is 



54 DISEASES OF POULTRY. 

one step beyond congestion. If a bird is affected with 
congestion of the lungs and does not die or recover 
within a few hours, the disease may develop into 
pneumonia. In this disease there is not only disten- 
tion of the bloodvessels, as with congestion, but there 
is thrown out from these vessels a liquid which fills 
the air-cells and by coagulating forms a semi-solid, 
gelatinous substance, that excludes the air and renders 
the lungs useless for respiration. The lung is then 
darker in color than in health, and when pressed upon 
gives a sensation of firmness and solidity comparable 
with the liver; therefore, the lung in that condition is 
said to be hepatized. 

Causation. — Two factors are believed to work to- 
gether in the production of pneumonia. There must 
be the conditions which produce congestion, viz., 
refrigeration, chilling of the surface of the body, dis- 
turbance of the general circulation from some cause, 
inhalation of irritating vapors or plethora ; and there 
must apparently be something else. This additional 
factor is in many cases, at least with the larger animals 
and man, a species of the bacteria. The same proba- 
bly holds true with birds. 

It appears that the bacteria which change congestion 
into inflammation are germs which under ordinary cir- 
cumstances are harmless, and which may often be 
found upon the surface of the mucous membrane of 
healthy animals. Now, if there are simultaneously in 
the same animal, germs which are sufficiently active, 
and, also, a congestion of the lungs, there have been 
brought together the conditions required to develop 
pneumonia. 

Symptoms. — The symptoms are similar to those seen 
in pulmonary congestion. The breathing is rapid^ 



riSKASKS OF POULTRY. 55 

difficult, and painful. There may be coughing 
with discharge from the mouth or nostrils of thick, ad- 
hesive mucus, grayish or yellowish in color or tinged 
with blood. The bird stands with ruffled plumage, 
drooping wings, head drawn in, and every appearance 
of severe illness. There is loss of appetite from the 
first, with thirst and constipation. 

On examination of the lungs after death one or both 
of these organs are found dark in color, engorged with 
blood and solidified. The pneumonia may take either 
one of two forms. There may be what is known as 
broncho -pneumonia, in which case the inflammation 
affects more particularly the bronchi and the lung is 
not much solidified. The bronchial tubes in this case 
are more or less filled with thick mucus and exudate. 
In the other form, called croupous pneumonia, the tis- 
sue of the lung is principally affected. It is then that 
the lung is solidified by the filling up of the air- 
cells. A piece of lung so affected, if dropped into a 
bucket of water, sinks to the bottom while healthy 
lung tissue will float. The bronchial tubes and air- 
sacs are also in some cases filled with a thick, yellow- 
ish fibrinous exudate which blocks up these air-pas- 
sages and becomes partly solidified. 

Treatment. — This is a rapid and fatal disease with 
birds and one in which treatment is very unsatisfactory. 
The bird should first of all be taken into a warm room 
and covered with a piece of blanket, if the weather be 
at all cold, leaving its head uncovered, so that there 
will be no obstruction to its supply of fresh air. It 
should be given linseed tea frequently, but a small 
quantity at a time, as a drink. This tea is made by 
pouring a. pint of boiling water on an ounce of flaxseed 
and keeping the mixture hot but not boiling for two 



56 DISEASES OF POULTRY. • 

hours. The seeds are then removed by straining and 
the mucilaginous liquid which has valuable demulcent 
properties may be kept before the affected bird as a 
simple drink or it may also be used as a vehicle for 
certain medicines. Suflficient nitrate of potash should 
be dissolved in the drink so thatthe bird will take about 
one grain three times a day. If the patient appears to be 
failing and becomes very sleepy with a dark bluish 
color of the comb and gills, mix fifteen drops of tinct- 
ure of digitalis with one ounce of water and adminis- 
ter ten drops of this mixture every two hours. In 
dropping such medicines it is best to use a medicine 
dropper, as drops of more uniform size are obtained. 
Great care should, also, be observed in administering 
the medicine to avoid its getting into the air -passages 
and causing strangulation. When the bird begins to 
improve, a grain of quinine or ten drops of cod liver 
oil twice a day, will hasten recovery. The food dur- 
ing sickness and recovery should be nutritious and 
digestible. A small quantity of warm milk, or milk and 
egg beaten together, or chopped raw beef may be offered 
from time to time, while the attack lasts and as the 
appetite returns gradually replace with mash or more 
solid articles of food. The disease may be prevented by 
the measures mentioned in the article on congestion of 
the lungs. 

MYCOSIS OF THE AIR -PASSAGES , OR ASPERGILLOSIS. 

Several species of fungi or molds may develop with - 
in the air-passages of animals, and particularlj^ of 
birds, and cause serious disease. These fungi all be- 
long to the genus Aspcri^illus, the parasitic species 
being in the order of their importance as follows : 
AspertfiUusfiDnigatus, Aspergillus nigresccns, As-per- 



DISK ASKS OF POULTRY 



57 



gillus fflancus, aiid Aspergillus candidns. Usually 
these fungi are found in nature growing upon dead 
organic matter; but they have great vegetative and 
resisting power and are able to adapt themselves to 
various conditions of existence. Many species of birds 

are affected by 
them, the dis- 
ease caused by 
their develop- 
ment having been 
observed in pig- 
eons, pheasants, 
fowls, ducks, 
geese and swans, 
as well as in vari- 
ous cage and 
wild birds. Pam- 
pered and deli- 
cate birds are be- 
lieved to be most 
frequently at- 
tacked. The dis- 
ease may take on 
the characters of 
an epizootic and 
attack a large 




Fig. 9. -Diagrammatic rpprespiitation of the air" 
sacs showiiif^ their relation to each other, and to 
the lunj^s. A, trachea; B, interclavicular sac; 
C, D, E, F, extensions of the interclavicular sac; 
<i, anterior thorocic sac; H, humerus; I, poster- 
ior thoracic sac; J, entrance of bronchial mem- 
brane; K, abdominal sac. 



number of indi- 
viduals. 

Symptoms. — In 
the early stages 
of the disease no symptoms are noticed, and it is only 
after it has progressed considerably that these be- 
come apparent. The affected birds do not follow the 
flock; they are very weak, scarcely able to stand, and, 



58 DISEASES OF POULTRV. 

consequently, remain by themselves and move about 
very little. They remain in a recumbent position, 
resting upon the sternum, are sleepy, and, if forced to 
run, soon fall from exhaustion. The plumage is dull 
and rough, the wings are pendant, the eyelids partly 
closed, the head depressed. The respiration is accel- 
erated and accompanied by a rattling or snoring sound, 
particularly during the expiration, and becomes diffi- 
cult and labored, the bird opening its beak from time 
to time, in order to take a long inspiration. The tem- 
perature of the body is elevated, the thirst increased 
and the appetite is diminished or disappears. There 
is more or less catarrh of the trachea and bronchi, 
with emaciation and diarrhea leading to death from 
exhaustion in from one to eight weeks. When the 
disease is limited to the air-sacs of the interior of the 
body, emaciation may be the only symptom ; but when 
it extends to the bones there may be lameness with 
swollen and painful joints. 

In examining the birds after death, the seat of the 
disease may be found in the trachea, bronchi, lungs, 
the various air-sacs, and other internal organs. It is 
sometimes, though rarely, found in the nostrils and in 
the air -sacs of the interior of the bones. Two kinds 
of lesions are found. There may be tubercles re- 
sembling closely those of tuberculosis. These are 
whitish or yellowish nodules varying from the size of 
a pinhead to that of a pea. They may be isolated or 
joined together in masses of considerable proportions. 
These tubercles are generally found in the depth of 
the tissues, and even in the marrow of the bones. On 
the mucous membrane liningthe air-tubes andair-sacs, 
the second form of disease process is seen. This con- 
sists of a membranous formation, an eighth of an inch 



DISEASES OF POULTRY, 



59 



or more in thickness, which bears upon its surface a 
growth of the fungus. These membranous patches are 
at first soft, but become firmer with age, and are yel- 
lowish or greenish in color, resembling a fibrino -puru- 
lent exudate. They adhere closely to the mucous 
membrane which is there thickened and inflamed. 
The air -sacs are sometimes obstructed by these 
growths which may in time become caseous or even 
calcareous. These changes may also be seen in the 
intestines, the mesentery, the liver and in other organs. 




Fig'. W,—Asf'erg!!his gloitcus, 
ail, mycelium, Z'/'," spore bearing 
stalks; cc. supportsof the spores; 
/f, chains of spores; gg, bluish 
green spores. 



Fig-. 11. — Aspergillus fiiinigattis 
with conidia bearers; ««, fruit 
heads in optical cross- section; 
*, fruit heads seen from above. 



The membrane lining the air-passages may, also, 
be found ulcerated, and the ulcers may be either naked 
or covered with a growth of the fungus. There is 
often seen in the mouth of pigeons a whitish nodule, 
the size of a pea or larger, which is called a canker. 
This is believed by some authorities to be caused by 
the aspergillus. 

In the very acute and rapid cases, the lungs may 
simply show inflammation, or there may be formation 
of pus or abscesses in the lungs, kidne3'S, liver and 
spleen as in pyaemia or septic infection. In some of 



60 DISEASES OF POULTRY. 

these cases there may be extensive hemorrhages, either 
locally or throughout the body, and these may con- 
stitute the only apparent alterations. 

A microscopic examination reveals the spores or fila- 
ments of the fungus in most of the lesions, whether 
these are acute or chronic. The nature of the disease 
may consequent!}^ be determined by a post-mortem ex- 
amination, but the diagnosis is uncertain and difficult 
during the life of the bird. 

Causation. — The various species of Aspcrgitli 
which cause this disease exist abundantlj^ in nature 
and develop, particularly in some warm summers, 
upon all kinds of straw and grains. When musty 
straw or musty grain is thrown to the fowls the 
exciting cause of the disease is placed before them. 
As little care is exercised to remove this dust be- 
fore straw is placed in the scratching -pens, or before 
grain is fed, vast numbers of the spores of these parasitic 
fungi are inhaled. This explains why the disease is 
generally found in the air -tubes, the lungs, and the 
air -sacs. Although many birds are exposed, but a 
comparatively small number are affected. These are 
probably more or less predisposed. It has been ob- 
served, in fact, that the delicate breeds, or the delicate 
and weak individuals, are most subject to the disease. 
Some authors are of the opinion that colds, irritation 
of the mucous membrane, or other forms of disease 
generally form thestartingpoint of this mycosis. It is, 
also, probable that the number of spores taken into 
the air -tubes or digestive organs has great influence in 
determining the result. 

Prevention. — As this disease is caused by the 
spores of pathogenic fungi which have developed upon 



DISEASES OF POULTRY. 61 

grain or straw, or similar substances, and as these 
spores must be inhaled with the breath or swallowed 
with the food, it is generally easy to guard against 
them. To accomplish this, avoid musty straw, ormusty 
or moldy food. If grain or straw is very dusty remove 
this dust by appropriate means before it is put where 
fowls have access to it. Keep the houses clean, dry, 
and well ventilated in order to prevent the accumula- 
tion of such spores. Destroy by fire or deeply bury 
the carcasses of birds which die. 

Treatment. — This disease when once established 
is usually fatal, notwithstanding medical treatment. 
Fumigation with tar vapor has been recommended. 
This is accomplished by shutting the fowls in a tight 
room, placing a tablespoonful of wood tar on a pint of 
water and stirring with a red-hot iron. The fowls are 
forced to breathe this vapor, which should not be so 
dense as to cause much irritation of the respiratory 
apparatus. The experiments of Lucet indicate that 
Fowler's solution of arsenic and particularly the tinct- 
ure of iodine injected hypodermically have consider- 
able influence in retarding the disease in rabbits. In 
the canker of pigeons, if other treatment fails, tincture 
of iodine may be applied to the affected part with a 
small brush or swab. In other forms of the disease 
in birds the internal administration of tincture of 
iodine or iodide of potassium should be tried. No 
form of treatment yet suggested, however, is very 
promising and the effort should be to prevent rather 
than to cure. 

THE AIR-SAC MITE. 

The peculiar arrangement of the respiratory organs 
in birds has led to the development of a form of para- 



62 



DISEASES OF POUETRY, 



sitism which is not seen in our other domesticated 
animals. One of the mites has domiciled itself in the 
air -sacs of the gallinaceous birds, especially in poultry 
and pheasants, and is found at times in great numbers 
even in the abdominal sacs and in those which pene- 
trate the bones. This mite, called the Cytodites midus, 
is closely related to those mites which live upon the 
skin and cause mange or scabies. Indeed, when first 
discovered it was supposed by Gerlach to be one of 
the mange insects and to cause an internal form of 
that disease. 

Careful study has shown that while the Cytodites is 
closely related to the 
mange acari, it differs 
from them in very im- 
portant characters. The 
m outh parts in the 
mange mites are formed 
to cut and tear the flesh 
and enable the mite to 
burrow into the skin, or, 
at least, to puncture the 
skin and obtain blood 
or serum for its suste- 
nance. In the air -sac 
mites the mouth parts 
are grown together and 
form a tube through which liquids may be sucked, but 
which is not adapted for tearing or puncturing the 
flesh. It would appear, therefore, that these mites can 
only produce a superficial irritation by their presence 
and movements upon the delicate surface of the mucous 
membranes, or possibly by depositing a virulent saliva 
such as is supposed to be the cause of a part of the 




12. — Cvtoditcs andus, male. 



DISEASES OF POULTRY. 63 

irritation of mange. Nevertheless, Holzendorff states 
that in addition to the infection of the air -sacs he has 
found in the lungs, liver, kidneys and other viscera, a 
great number of yellow miliary tubercles in which he 
also recognized this parasite. 

When theair-sacmitesexistin very small numbers, no 
signs of irritation or ill health are seen in the affected 
birds. When they become very numerous, however, 
they cause considerable irritation of the lining mem- 
brane of the air -sacs and they are crowded into the 
bronchi, where they set up inflammation, which may 
take the form of bronchitis or broncho -pneumonia. 
Megnin states that in such cases there may be obstruc- 
tion of the air -passages causing fits of coughing and 
even sudden death from suffocation. Gerlach accused 
the Cytodites of causing enteritis (inflammation of the 
intestines), and Zundel thought they caused both en- 
teritis and peritonitis (inflammation of the serous 
membrane lining the abdominal cavity). They pro- 
bably cause anaemia, loss of flesh, and general un- 
thriftiness, even if no form of acute disease develops. 

This parasitic affection of the air-sacs is, of course, 
a contagious disease. The mites can not live for a very 
long time outside of the bird's body; they are brought 
upon a farm with affected birds and as opportunity 
offers they pass from bird to bird until the greater part 
or the whole of the flock becomes contaminated. No 
doubt the mites penetrate the body by crawling into 
the nostrils and following the trachea and bronchial 
tubes until they reach the air -sacs. How frequently, 
or under what circumstances they leave the air -sacs 
and seek the outside air is unknown. 

Symptoms. — In many cases birds affected with the 



64 



DISHASES OF POULTRY. 



^^ 



air -sac mite show no symptoms of disease, and the ex- 
istence of the parasite is only discovered accidentally- 
when the carcass of a bird which has died from some 
other cause is being examined. In other cases the 
fowls are listless, 
inactive, with pale 
comb, and loss of 
flesh. Occasional- 
ly one dies without 
anyapparent cause. 
The acute cases 
may come on with - 
out premonitory 
symptoms. The 
affected birds are 
found quite ill, 
standing by them- 
selves, with neck 
retracted, wings 
drooped, and la- 
bored breathing. 
There may be rattling of mucus in the throat as 
in bronchitis, or paroxysms of coughing. Death may 
come suddenly from obstruction of the air-tubes with 
plugs of mucus, or in other cases the illness may be 
prolonged and the birds die of exhaustion. 

The mites are readily discovered on the walls of the 
air-sacs after the death of the bird. They are about 
one -fiftieth of an inch in length and, therefore, easily 
seen with the naked eye. They are often so numerous 
that the surfaces of the air -sacs appear as though dust- 
ed with a whitish or yellowish powder. By careful 
watching, the points of which this powder is composed 
are seen to move and may be made out as the indivi- 




Fiff. 13. — Cytodites Ntidux, female. 



DISEASES OF POULTRY. 65 

dual acari. The raucous surface of the air -sacs may 
also be covered with yellowish points of exudate, the 
result of the irritation caused by the parasite, while 
the bronchi are congested and partly filled with mucus. 
In extreme cases there may also be pneumonia. 

Treatment. — Megnin recommends giving sulphur 
mixed with the food and states that the small quan- 
tity volatilized and eliminated by the lungs is suffi- 
cient to kill the parasites. Others advise fumigation 
with the vapors of burning tar or the steam from boiling 
tar water. If this mite is discovered in the flock, efforts 
should be made to entirely eradicate it. No birds 
from an infected flock should be sold for breeding 
purposes. Feeding sulphur and fumigations may be 
tried, but the flock should be carefully watched, and 
if the parasite persists in spite of this treatment, it 
would te better to kill off all the birds, disinfect thor- 
oughly and start with new birds from a flock known 
to be healthy. One of the best plans to secure a flock 
free from parasites of all kinds is to purchase eggs, 
hatch them in an incubator, raise the chicks in a clean 
brooder and put them on ground that has not been 
used for fowls for several years. There are so many 
parasites to which birds are subject, that may be 
avoided in this way, that we would recommend the 
plan to all who have discovered that their fowls are 
infested with parasites, or who for some mysterious 
reason have failed to make poultry thrive and yield 
satisfactory returns under ordinary conditions. 



66 DISEASFS OF POULTRY 



CHAPTER III. 



Diseases of the Organs of Digestion. 



GENERAL REMARKS CONCERNING THE DIGESTIVE ORGANS — 
OBSTRUCTION OF THE BEAK — INFLAMMATION OF THE 
MUCOUS MEMBRANE OF THE MOUTK, PIP, CATARRHAL 
STOMATITIS — THRUSH, APHTHA — DIPHTHERIA — PSOROS- 
PERMOSIS — ASPERGILLOSIS — CROUPOUS ANGINA — OB- 
STRUCTION OF THE PHARYNX — CATARRH OR INFLAM- 
MATION OF THE CROP — PARALYSIS OF THE CROP, IM 
PACTED CROP, OBSTRUCTED CROP — ABNORMAL APPETITE, 
ABERRATION OF THE APPETITE — CATARRH OF THE PRO 
VENTRICULUS, INFLAMMATION OF THE STOMACH, GAS- 
TRITIS. 



GENERAL REMARKS CONCERNING THE DIGESTIVE 
ORGANS. 

^^W'T IS necessary to know something of the form, 
II structure, situation and use of the different 
II organs which constitute the digestive appa- 
ratus in order to fully understand the diseases 
to which these organs are subject. Birds do not masti- 
cate their food as do mammals, but this is swallowed 
in the condition in which it is found, and, after passing 
along the upper part of the oesophagus, drops into the 
crop. The crop, or first stomach. Fig. 14-4, is a dila- 
tation of the oesophagus ; or we might call it a pouch 
attached to the front of this tube before it reaches the 
second stomach or succentric ventricle. It mav be 



DISEASES OF POULTRY 



67 




Fig. 14.— Digestive Apparatus of the Chicken. 

In this figfure all of the head has been removed except the lower jaw, 
which has been turned sidewise to show the tongue and the opening's to 
the trachea and oesophagus. The neck with the exception of the cesoph- 
agus, the breast bone, the heart and the superficial muscles have also 
been removed. 

1, tongue; 2, phar.vnx, showing opening to larynx; 3, upper portion of 
oesophagus; 4, crop; 5, lower portion of oesophagus; 6, succentric ventricle; 
7, gizzard; 8, origin of the duodenum; 9, first branch of duodenal flexure; 
10, second branch of the same; 11, origin of the floating portion of small 
intesine; 12, small intestine; 13, free extremities of the caeca; 14, inser- 
tion of these two organs into the intestinal tube; IS, rectum; 16, cloaca; 
17, anus; 18, mesentery; 10, left lobe of the liver; 20, right lobe; 21, gall 
bladder: 22, insertion of the pancreatic and biliary ducts; 23, pancreas; 
24, lung; 25^ ovary; 26, oviduct. • 



68 DISEASES OF POULTRY. 

compared with the rumen or paunch of cattle and 
sheep. The food which is eaten and other substances 
which are swallowed drop first into the crop where 
they are macerated and softened in the liquids secreted 
by this organ. The contents of this crop are under 
normal conditions soon forced by the contractions of 
its muscular walls into the lower part of the oesophagus, 
which carries them on into the second or true stomach, 
the proventriculus or succentric ventricle, where they 
are mixed with the gastric juice and rapidly passed 
onward to the gizzard. 

In the grain -eating birds, the gizzard is a remark- 
ably firm, thick muscular organ which takes the food 
that has been softened and mixed with digestive 
liquids, and grinds it by pressing and rubbing it 
against pebbles that the bird has swallowed. Kven 
the hardest grains and seeds are reduced in this manner 
to a paste upon which the digestive liquids can readily 
exert their dissolving action. This paste is pressed 
onward into the small intestine where it is mixed with 
the secretions of the liver, pancreas, and intestines, 
which complete the solution of the nutritive principles 
and render them proper for assimilation. 

Under natural conditions birds are compelled to 
hunt their food, they find and eat but a small quantity 
at a time, and the crop, while designed by nature as a 
reservoir for storing food, is not overloaded by receiv- 
ing a day's ration in a few minutes. In the domesti- 
cated state, these conditions are more or less changed, 
the birds are fed only once or twice a day and from 
lack of gravel, indigestion, and insufficient exercise, 
acquire abnormal appetites and eat feathers, straw, dry 
leaves and other indigestible substances. Diseases 



DISEASES OF POULTRY. 69 

and obstructions of the digestive tract occur from such 
causes, and while these are more or less preventable, 
even the most careful manager may occasionally find 
some of his birds affected. It is, therefore, advisable 
to study the form and functions of each organ so that 
the slightest variation from the normal working may 
be appreciated, and, also, that the proper change in 
management may suggest itself for the correction of 
such derangement. 

OBSTRUCTION OF THE BEAK. 

t 

It is seldom that the upper part of the digestive 
tract of birds becomes obstructed. Megnin has, how- 
ever, recorded the case of a bird in which a sunflower 
seed had become tightly wedged within the space 
formed by the branches of the lower mandible. This 
seed compressed and completely paralyzed the tongue, 
and as the bird was unable to dislodge it, the result 
was death from inanition. If the cause of the trouble 
had been recognized before the death of the bird, the 
offending body could have been easily removed with a 
toothpick or any pointed object and an immediate cure 
would have been thus affected. When a bird is seen 
to jerk its head suddenly as if to rid itself of some- 
thing which adheres to the beak or head, particularly 
if there is difficulty of picking up and swallowing 
food, a careful examination should be made for some 
obstructing body such as a seed or a piece of bone. 
By raising the tongue, the angle of the lower mandible 
may be readily explored. No special directions are 
needed for the removal of such obstructions further 
than to use due care and to avoid as far as possible 
any injury to the sensitive tissues. 



70 DISEASES OF POULTRY. 

INFLAMMATION OF THE MUCOUS MEMBRANE OF THE 
MOUTH, PIP, CATARRHAL STOMATITIS. 

A catarrhal inflammation of the month is seen in 
fowls and may be either an independent disease or a 
complication of certain inflammatory diseases of the 
respiratory organs. The term "pip" is commonly 
used with birds much as " hollow horn " and "mur- 
rain " are applied to cattle diseases; that is, it is made 
to cover a large part of the diseases to which birds are 
subject, and it is sometimes believed to exist by over- 
anxious poultry keepers when a careful examination 
shows that the birds are perfectly healthy. 

Symptoms. — Inflammation of the mouth is a rare 
rather than a common disease. The symptoms con - 
sist of the drying of the membrane of the mouth and 
particularly of that covering the tongue. A hard 
opaque deposit accumulates along the edges and upon 
the under surface of the tongue, and may firmly attach 
this organ to the adjacent parts. The dried epidermis 
may partly separate from the sensitive tissues, and 
form a hard shell which remains attached to the free 
extremity of the tongue, causing more or less painful 
constriction and interfering with the movements of 
this important organ. 

Cause. — This disease arises from any form of local 
irritation or injury which is sufficiently serious or long 
continued to set up inflammatory action. In the ma- 
jority of cases it is probably caused by micro -organisms 
of feeble virulence which are able to make some head- 
way when the digestive organs are deranged and the 
circulation of the parts somewhat disturbed. In most 
other cases, there is nothing more than a drying or 
desiccation of the mucous membrane caused by breath- 



DISEASES OF POULTRY. 71 

ing- through the mouth on account of obstruction of 
the air passages, or disease of the lungs affecting the 
respiration. 

Treatment. — The common treatment which con- 
sists of tearing the dried epithelium off the tongue, be- 
fore it has entirely separated by the natural process, is 
cruel and injurious, often leading to the death of the 
bird. In case of simple drying of the mouth, it is 
suflficient to moisten the tongue with a few drops of a 
mixture of equal parts of glycerine and water. In 
case there is redness of the membrane, or if the epithe- 
lium is beginning to separate, or if a deposit has 
formed, add twenty grains of chlorate of potash to 
each ounce of this mixture. An excellent remedy for 
such cases is made by dissolving fifteen grains of boric 
acid in an ounce of water. Both of these solutions 
are harmless and may be freely and frequently applied. 
When the epithelium is separating, it should be kept 
moistened with the glycerine mixture and its detach- 
ment may be somewhat facilitated by loosening it with 
a pin or the point of a penknife, but great care should 
be exercised, the sensitive tissues should not be touched 
and no blood should be drawn. If properly treated 
the disease remains localized and is of slight import- 
ance. The exaggerated idea prevalent as to the dan- 
gerous character of "pip," probably arises from its 
being associated with serious diseases of the respira- 
tory organs and from the fatal results which follow the 
forcible tearing away of the dried epithelium, leaving 
a bleeding and ulcerating surface. Should the drying 
and irritation of the membrane be the result of breath- 
ing through the mouth on account of disease of the 
air passages or lungs, the latter must, of course, be 
treated to effect a permanent cure. 



I)Isi>;asi:s ok i'oui.tkv 



THKUSH, ArilTH/K. 



Ill luimaii tiKHliciue tlij term-; thrush and aphth:u are 
applied to an affection of the niucovis nieinhrane of the 
mouth, seen jKirticuhirly in chikhen. and which is 
characterized by the i)roduction of a white cheesy sub- 
stance, comjKised of the fdaments and spores of a 
vej^etable i>arasite, calleil the Oidiitin albicans (or Sac- 
charonnKS alliicans) and of the cells of the epithelium 
which have underi::one extensive proliferation. Veteri - 
narians have ajii^lied the name to several distinct dis- 
eases of the mouth, seen in various mammals and birds, 
which are characterized by a white or yellowish de- 
]iosit on various ])arts of the nuicous membrane lininj;- 
that cavit}'. It is supposed that the term thrush has 
been applied to diphtheria and chicken }>ox in birds and 
possibly to other diseascv. True thrush, although a 
rare disease, has been noted in at least two instances 
where a reliable diagnosis appears to have been made. 

One of the two cases recorded in birds was described 
by Kberth as follows : At the autopsy of a very emaci - 
ated fowl, which had died after violent convulsions, 
there was found on the mucous membrane of the oisoph - 
agus, from the middle of that tube to the crop, several 
white but not extensive deposits firmly adhering to the 
surface. The internal surface of the crop was covered 
by a white layer, similar to the deposit of thrush. 
Below the crop, the oesophagus also had some more 
patches of a brownish -yellow color. The microscopic 
examination of this layer proved it to be composed of 
the spores and filameJits of the Sacc/iaromyccs albicans. 
The second case, recorded by Martin, was observed in 
a young turkey. At the autopsy, there was found at 
the posterior jKirt of the a^sophagus and reaching as 



DISEASES OF POULTRY. 73 




Fk;. is.— Microscopic elements of thrush; a, «, and r, c, epithelial cells; 
l\ /', isolated spores of the .Siicrharninvit's albicans; d, d, filaments of the 
mycelium; c,^, /,/•, terminal portions of the mycelium; //, sjjores; /, ovoid 
terminal cell. Matrnilicd 360 diameters. 

far as the proventriculus, a layer of thrush having the 
same appearances to the naked eye and under the 
microscope as were described by Eberth. 

Although, in the two recorded cases, the disease 
existed in the lower part of the oesophagus, it is very 
probable that it also occurs in the mouth of birds, a 
location favorable for its development with most species 
of animals. The disease does not appear to be very 
common, although it might l^e quite frequent and still 
not be recognized, as Init comparatively few investi- 
gators have given systematic attention to poultry dis- 
eases. Thrush can be distinguished from other dis- 
eases causing a similar deposit only by a microscopic 
examination. The mycelium and spores of the fungus 



74 DISEASES OF POULTRY. 

are found in abundance between the epithelium and 
the mucous surface. 

There are no characteristic symptoms in addition to 
the whitish patches upon the affected membrane. The 
patients are depressed, the mouth exhales an acid odor, 
the head may be swollen, the appetite is preserved, but 
there is rapid loss of weight and strength. Death is 
preceded by convulsions. 

The canker of pigeons is believed by some investi- 
gators to be caused by this fungus. 

Treatment. — The system of the bird should be 
strengthened by good food and tonics. The part 
affected should be treated with antiseptics and particu - 
larly with a ten per cent solution of borate of soda or 
with boric acid solution fifteen grains to the ounce 
of water. These solutions should be applied quite 
frequently in case the affected part is in the mouth, 
where it can be reached. When the disease is localized 
in the lower part of the oesophagus it can not be diag- 
nosed during the life of the bird and hence can not be 
treated. 

DIPHTHERIA. 

Whitish, grayish, or 3'ellowish patches of false mem- 
brane are frequently seen upon the mucous membrane 
of the mouth with various species of birds. This is 
generally due to diphtheria, a serious, contagious dis- 
ease described in the chapter on generalized infectious 
diseases, to which the reader is referred. 

PSOROSPERMOSIS. 

Diphtheritic processes, pustules and ulcers of the 
mouth in poultry and pigeons have been attributed by 
numerous authors to psorosperms, or parasitic proto- 



DISEASES OF POULTRY. 75 

zoa. While such organisms have undoubtedly been 
discovered in connection with these lesions it is some- 
what doubtful if their presence is more than accidental. 
The sore head, chicken pox, or pigeon pox, which in- 
vades the mouth, in certain cases, was long considered 
to be a form of psorospermosis. The most recent in- 
vestigations, however, attribute this disease to a fungus 
of the group of blastomycetes. It is, also, stated that 
the tongues of poultry and pigeons may be invaded by 
psorosperms. These observations must be confirmed 
by use of the most recent methods of research before 
they can be accepted and before the disease, if any, 
which they cause can be described. The article on 
Chicken Pox or Sore Head in the chapter on Diseases 
of the Skin may be consulted in this connection. 

ASPERGILLOSIS. 

It has been shown by Dieulafoy, Chantemesse and 
Widal that young pigeons are frequently affected with 
a disease which appears in the form of a white nodule 
in the floor of the mouth. This is apparently caseous 
and in size varies from that of a pea to that of a small 
nut. It may be accompanied by miliary tubercles in 
the lungs which are either isolated or agglomerated 
in caseous masses. Similar tumors may be found in 
the oesophagus, intestine, liver and kidneys. These 
nodules which closely, resemble those of tuberculosis 
do not contain the bacilli of tuberculosis but there is 
found in them the fungus known as the Aspergillus 
fiimigatus. This fungus also, affects the mouth and 
air passages of poultry, and has been described in the 
chapter on Disease of the Organs of Respiration. 

According to Dieulafoy, Chantemesse and Widal the 
"crammers of pigeons" are affected with a chronic 



76 DISEASES OF POULTRY. 

disease of the lungs probably caused by this fungus and 
due to contagion. In certain establishments in Paris, 
these men feed daily several thousands of pigeons, 
filling their mouths with a mixture of water and grains, 
then applying their own lips to the open bill of the 
birds in order to blow down a portion of this mixture. 
It is probable that they in this way become infected 
with the spores of the ispergillus from diseased pig- 
eons. Culture and inoculation exjieriments made with 
the expectoration of the affected " crammers " confirm 
this explanation. 

Tricatment. — The appearance of this disease 
among i)oultry or pigeons should be at once accepted 
as a signal for thoroughly cleaning and disinfecting 
the houses and appurtenances liable to be infected. 
The diseased birds should also be isolated and treated 
or killed. Medical treatment to the nodules in the 
mouth has not been reported upon sufficiently to allow 
of an opinion be*ng formed as to its efficacy. The 
remedies to be tried are boric acid solution fifteen 
grains to one ounce of water; sulphate of copper ten 
to fifteen grains to the ounce; carbolic acid in two per 
cent solution ; flowers of sulphur to be applied in 
powder. 

CROUPOUS ANGINA. 

A form of croupous angina has been described by 
Rivolta and Delprato as affecting pullets and young 
pigeons, and which they believe to be caused by flagel- 
late infusoria. They have named this organism the 
Monoccrcomonas gallincc . This germ is a round or dis- 
coid body of a pale tint, and from 14 to 25 micromilli- 
meters (1-2000 to 1-1000 of an inch) in length by 
5. to 7 microraillimeters (1-5000 to 1-3500 of an inch) 



DISEASES OF POULTRY. 77 

in breadth. It has flagella at its extremities which 
enable it to move in any direction. 

The symptoms are whitish points, spots or elevations 
upon the mucous membrane of tlie pharynx, cesoph- 
ag^us, crop, and more rarely upon the palate, base of 
the tongue and lingual canal. A microscopic exami- 
nation of the affected spot shows it to be made up of 
epithelial cells, leucocytes, red blood globules, and 
granular matter, among which thousands of the in- 
fusoria are moving. Beneath the spot or patch, the 
mucous membrane is congested or inflamed. 

This disease may cause death from loss of appetite 
and weakness. It is distinguished from diphtheria 
by the fact that the exudate is only slightly adherent 
to the mucous membrane and is easily detached from 
it. Some authors doubt if the infusoria cause the dis- 
ease and are inclined to consider it a form of diph- 
theria. The treatment should be the same as recom- 
mended for diphtheria. 

OBSTRUCTION OF THE PHARYNX. 

Occasionally a l)ird attempts to swallow a particle 
of food, or a piece of green bone, so large or irregular 
in conformation that it becomes lodged in the pharynx. 
The condition may be recognized by the efforts of the 
bird to swallow the object or to rid itself of it; and 
by passing the fingers over the throat a hard swelling 
can be made out. Prompt relief should be afforded in 
such cases or death may result from suffocation. The 
treatment consists in the removal of the obstructing 
substance. This can generally be accomplished by 
carefully pressing on the sides of the throat in such a 
manner as to force the body into the mouth. If it is 
difficult to move it in this way, a teaspoonful of olive 



78 DISEASES OF POULTRY. 

oil poured into the back part of the mouth may assist 
in dislodging it. A small p'air of forceps or any small 
blunt-pointed instrument may in certain cases be ser- 
viceable. Careful manipulation with the fingers may 
usually be relied upon, however, to accomplish the re- 
moval of the obstruction. 

CATARRH OR INFLAMMATION OF THE CROP. 

The mucous membrane lining the interior of the 
crop may be the seat of more or less irritation or even 
of inflammation. As a result of this process the func- 
tions of the organ are disturbed or arrested and serious 
conditions develop. The disease does m)t appear to 
be very common except as a complication of other 
disorders. 

Causation. — Catarrh of the crop may be caused by 
irregular feeding and by too much food being taken at 
one time. When the crop is over -distended the mus- 
cular coat is partially paralj^zed, the secretion of the 
glands is interfered with, there is congestion of the 
internal coat, and fermentation or decomposition of 
the contents. If fowls eat feathers or other indigestible 
substances, these may irritate the mucous coat of the 
crop and produce catarrh. Partially decomposed meat, 
or putrid food of any kind, is also irritating and liable 
to produce the same result. The same disease occurs 
when birds eat substances containing phosphorus cr 
arsenic, either by gaining access to rat poison, or when 
they are intentionally poisoned. Catarrh may, also, 
result from the presence of animal parasites (worms) 
such as the Dispharagns nasutus and iincinatus and 
the Trichosoina contortion. It is also a complication 
of thrush, diphtheria and cholera. With pigeons which 
have lost their young, it results from engorgement of 



DISEASES OF POULTRY. 79 

the follicles that secrete the milky liquid with which 
the young pigeons are fed. 

Symptoms. — The most prominent symptom is dis- 
tention of the crop, and on examination the swelling 
is found to be soft and due to accumulated liquid or 
gas, mixed with more or less food. The birds are dull, 
indisposed to move, and there is belching of gas, loss 
of appetite and weakness. Sometimes there is nausea 
and the affected bird attempts to vomit. Pressure upon 
the crop causes the expulsion through the mouth of 
liquid and gas having an offensive odor due to fer- 
mentation. 

Treatment. — A clean, dry pen should be provided 
for the affected bird or birds where proper attention 
can be given to the treatment and where the food can 
be regulated. The first* step in treatment is to empty 
the crop of its irritating and decomposing contents by 
careful pressure and manipulation while the bird is 
held with its head downward. When the crop appears 
to be entirely freed of its contents, give two grains of 
subnitrate of bismuth and one -half grain of bicar- 
bonate of soda in a teaspoonful of water. This will 
relieve the irritation and correct the acidity. Some 
authors recommend salicylic acid to be given imme- 
diately after the crop is emptied. It may be con- 
veniently administered by dissolving one grain in an 
ounce of water and giving two to three teaspoonfuls 
as a dose. The bird should be kept without food for 
eighteen or twenty hours, and then fed sparingly upon 
soft, easily digested material. If one -half grain of 
c^uinine is given morning and night for two or three 
days the recovery is hastened. If treatment is com- 
menced in time most of the birds will recover. 



80. DISKASES OF POULTRY. 



PARALYSIS OF THE CROP, IMPACTED CROP, OB- 
STRUCTED CROP. 

The crop may be overloaded with dry grain, and its 
thin muscular walls distended, exhausted and paral- 
yzed so that the organ can not be emptied; or, the 
opening into the lower portion of the cesophagus may 
be clogged with dry leaves, feathers, straw, and other 
indigestible substances swallowed by the bird; or, 
finally, the walls of the crop maybe paralyzed in some 
diseases, as, for instance, in cholera and diphtheria, 
and, as the bird continues to eat, this receptacle be- 
comes over -distended and packed solidly with food. 
In these different cases the symptoms are almost iden- 
tical and the treatment must be conducted on the same 
principles. It is convenient, therefore, to group these 
different conditions together and consider them for 
practical purposes as constituting one disease. 

Causation. — Improper feeding is to a great extent 
responsible for impaction of the crop. Birds that are 
half starved or that have had no grain for a long time 
are liable to eat too much if they at once have access 
to a large quantity. Again, birds which have con- 
tracted catarrh of the crop from improper treatment 
frequently have depraved appetites and may fill the 
crop to repletion with food and all sorts of indigestible 
substances. It appears, therefore, that, with the ex- 
ception of those cases of paralysis due to the poison 
developed in the course of the contagious diseases, and 
of those cases of obstruction resulting from the acci- 
dental swallowing of pins, nails, large pieces of dry 
bones, pieces of thread or cord and similar substances, 
this disease is caused by irregular or improper diet and 
a failure to maintain those hygienic conditions neces- 



n IS p: ASKS OF poultry. 81 

sary to good health. An in.siiilficient supply of drink 
ing water is, also, regarded as a cause. 

Symptoms. — The affected bird has difficult^' in swal- 
lowing or entirely loses its appetite. The crop is 
greatly distended, the swelling sometimes being of 
remarkable size. It is hard and more or less firm and 
unyielding on pressure. Sometimes a fermenting or 
decomposing liquid escapes from the mouth and nos- 
trils. The bird is slow in its movements, dull, stupid, 
and sleepy. The comb is pale, the beak is kept open 
on account of the pressure on the trachea, and the 
feathers appear rough. In some instances sharp - 
pointed nails or other pointed objects are found to 
have penetrated the crop and skin and remain pro- 
jecting from the puncture. 

^ The pressure of the distended crop upon the wind- 
pipe and blood-vessels may cause asphyxia, the crop 
may become affected with gangrene, or it may even be 
ruptured. As much as three -fourths of a pound of 
moist or even sprouted grain has been removed from 
the crop in these severe cases. 

Treatment. — The treatment of affected birds should 
be prompt and energetic to avoid the fatal complica- 
tions which have been mentioned. Pour a small quan- 
tity of sweet oil into the mouth and cause the bird to 
swallow it. Then manipulate that portion of the crop 
nearest the throat by careful pressure and squeezing 
between the thumb and finger in such a manner as to 
break up the contents of the crop and force it towards 
the mouth in small portions. Suspend the bird head 
downwards from time to time and press the loosened 
particles of food towards the head so that they will 
escape from the mouth. With care and patience the 
crop may be entirely emptied in this way, if oil is ad • 



82 DISEASES OF POULTRY. 

ministered as often as is required to soften the contents. 
After this is accomplished g'ive two grains of baking 
soda in water, keep without food for a dajs and then 
feed sparingly on soft diet until recovery is com])lete. 
In case the crop contains hard -pointed objects which 
can not safely be manipulated in the manner just de- 
scribed, or if such attempts at removing the impacted 
matter are for any reason unsuccessful, the crop must 
be cut into with a knife and the contents removed 
through the artificial opening. In order to perform 
this operation properly, the feathers should l)e clipped 
off with a ])air of scissors over the most prominent 
part of the crop so that they will not obstruct the cut- 
ting or get in the operator's way when he is removing 
the contents of the crop. Now take a sharj), clean 
knife and make an incision through the skin and the 
wall of the crop until the food in this organ is reached. 
This opening should not be much over an inch in 
length, and should be rather high on the cro]) so that 
the food will not have the same tendency to press it 
open when healing as it would at the most dependant 
part. The contents of the crop should be carefully 
removed with the finger, or with the handle of a spoon 
or some other convenient object. The wound maj^ 
now be washed with a solution of carbolic acid, five 
drops to one ounce of water, and closed with stitches. 
White silk is the l)est material to use for this ])ur])ose. 
Some stitch the walls of the crop first, allowing the 
ends of the silk to hang outside, so that after five or 
six days the thread may l)e cut and the stitches i)ulled 
out. The skin is drawn together in the same way. 
Other operators prefer to stitch through the skin and 
the walls of the crop at the same time, drawing them 
carefully and neatly together. In five or six days if 



DISEASES OF POULTRY. 83 

the union of the parts has taken place, cut the stitches 
and carefully draw them out so that they will not in- 
terfere with perfect healing. After the operation has 
been performed, give no food and only a small quan- 
tity of water, to which a grain or two of salicylic acid 
has been added, during the first twenty -fovir hours. 
Then feed with milk for two or three days, gradually 
changing to mush or more solid food, and finally re- 
turn to the ordinary diet when the wound heals. 

With fowls, this operation is not serious, if per- 
formed in time, the wound readily heals and the birds 
are soon well. With pigeons, it is usually fatal on 
account of the sensitive and vascular condition of the 
mucous membrane of the affected part. 

ABNORMAL APPETITE, ABERRATION OF THE 
APPETITE. 

Depraved and abnormal appetite is generally the re- 
sult of some disease of the digestive organs, although, 
frequently, it may be an acquired habit. It often 
accompanies and is a symptom of catarrh of the crop, 
parasites of the oesophagus and crop, catarrh of the 
proventriculus, and partial obstruction of the gizzard 
from lack of grit. It is easily understood why these 
troubles should affect the appetite. The sensations of 
appetite and hunger are produced apparently by physio - 
logical variations of the circulation in the stomach, 
acting upon the nerves of this organ. Variations of 
the circulation occur from the diseases mentioned to a 
much greater degree than under ]:)h3'siological con - 
ditions, and, hence, the sensations produced are more 
acute and more urgent. They lead the birds to swallow 
the most convenient substances without much regard 
to their nutritive qualities or whether they can Ije 



154 DISEASES OF POUI.TRY. 

digested. Among the numerous substances which are 
swallowed under such conditions, are dry grass, leaves, 
particles of dry bone, pieces of cloth, nails, and feathers. 
Birds with such depraved appetites often pull the 
feathers out of other members of the flock, in order to 
satisfy their abnormal craving. In this way they ac- 
quire the habit of feather eating. Very often the 
feather -eating habit is acquired by imitation, and thus 
it may be introduced into a flock by a new bird which 
had contracted it elsewhere; or, it is spread through 
the flock from a bird which was led to it by indigestion, 
or other disease of the stomach. Lack of exercise 
may affect the digestion sufficiently to lead to feather 
eating. 

Treatment. — Give the birds a good run in a grass - 
covered yard. Feed easily digested and cooling food 
including green vegetables. Onions are said to be 
particularly efficacious. If the yard is small, prepare 
a scratching shed, covering the floor deeply with straw, 
and scatter grain in the straw for the morning meal so 
that the fowls will be compelled to scratch and work 
tO find it. Add bicarbonate of soda to the drinking 
water in the proportion of about twenty grains to the 
quart and put a small quantity of salt in the food. 
Salting of food should, however, be light as large 
quantities of salt are injurious and may be fatal to 
poultry. 

CATARRH OF THE PROVENTRICULUS , INFLAMMATION 
OF THE STOMACH, GASTRITIS. 

The true stomach or proventriculus of the fowl is a 
comparatively small organ. It has the appearance of 
a dilatation of the oesophagus below the crop and just 
in front of the gizzard. The capacity of the proventri- 



Gannet. 



DISKASrJS OI'' HOUlvTRY. 85 

cuius is slight, and with those l)irds which live ui)on 
vegetable substances the food is fed to it gradually 
and almost constantly from the crop. Birds which. eat 
insecl?. fruits, or flesh exclusively have either no crop 
or only a simple dilatation of the oesophagus, as such 

food is easily digested. 
In the walls of the pro - 
ventriculus are the gas- 
tric glands which secrete 
the gastric j uice required 
for the digestion of the 
albuminoid constitu- 
ents of the food. The 
different forms assumed 
by the gastric glands 
in various species of 
birds are illustrated in 
Fig. 16. Tlie simplicity 
or complication of the.se 
glands indicates to a 
certain extent the kind 
of food which is natu- 
ral to the species. The 
gastric juice may digest 
flesh, fish, and ground 
feed while still in the 
proventriculus, but it 
can not act upon grains 
and seeds until these 
have been crushed in 
the gizzard. Catarrh or inflammation of the mucous 
membrane of the stomach is a not uncommon disease, 
and one which seriously interferes with tjie vigor and 




Turkey. 



Rhea. 



Ostrich. 



Fig. 16. — Gastric plands of birds. 



86 DISEASES OF POULTRY. 

productiveness of the flock and may cause considerable 
losses as it often ends fatally. 

Ca.usation. — Gastritis may be caused by anything- 
which interferes with the ])roper digestion of the food. 
A lack of grit may prevent the gizzard from tritu- 
rating the food with sufficient rapidity, the passage 
is, therefore, blocked, the aliments are held back in the 
stomach, the latter is unduly distended, and thecontents, 
being retained too long, cause irritation . The ingestion 
of too large a quantity of food may act in the same 
way. It is said that a long -continued ration of stimu- 
lating food, too much condiments or condition powder, 
and lack of exercise are all exciting causes; as are, 
also, impure drinking water, mouldy food, and putre- 
fying flesh. In certain cases this disease is produced 
by irritating poisons, such as rat poison, phosphorus 
from matches, and similar substances obtained acci- 
dentally or given maliciously. Occasionally it is 
found to be due to pins, nails, pieces of bone or other 
sharp objects which have become lodged and may have 
partly or completely penetrated the walls of the organ. 
It may be observed as a complication of various* con- 
tagious diseases, such as fowl cholera and diphtheria. 

Symptoms. — With inflammation of the stomach, 
there is loss of appetite and marked thirst. The birds 
are dull and have some fever, with accelerated breath- 
ing. The plumage is erect, the wings drooping, and 
there is usually constipation. In serious cases there is 
great prostration and indisposition to move, loss of 
flesh is rapid, and the strength is soon exhausted. 

Treatment. — If the disease is identified in its 
early stages, seek for its cause, and endeavor to over- 
come it by removing the cause. Change the ration 
and give more easily digested food, with some meat. 



DISEASKS OF POULTRY. 



87 



Feed regularly, often, and a small quantity at a time. 
Give some cooked food, with barley water or milk for 
drink, or put twenty grains of bicarbonate of soda to 
a quart of drinking water. In severe cases, give two 
grains sub nitrate of bismuth three times a day in 
a teaspoonful of water. Counteract constipation with 
Epsom salts (twenty grains) or castor oil (one tea- 
spoonful) once a day as long as may be necessary. 
Let the fowls run on young grass with plenty of range. 
In case the disease is due to poisoning or to sharp 
objects imbedded in the stomach, it generally ends 
fatally before its nature is discovered. 




SS DISEAS1-:S OF POULTRY. 



CHAPTER IV. 



DisKASHS oftheOroans OF Du'.ESTioN {coittlnucd) . 

OASTKU-INTESTINAIv CATARRH, SIMPI.K DIARRHEA, OASTRO- 
RNTKRITIS, ENTERITIS — CONSTIPATION, INTKSTlNAIy 
OBSTRUCTION — TOXIC GASTRO- ENTERITIS — BACTERIAL, 

ENTERITIS — ASTHENIA, GOING IJGHT— PSOROSI'ERMIO- 
ENTEKlTlS — ^INFECTlonS ENTERO-HEPATITIS OE TUR- 
KEYS, BLACK HEAD-PARASITIC WORMS WHICH INEEST 
THE DIGESTIVE APPARATUS — THE NODULAR T^NIASIS 
OF FOWLS. 

gastro-intkstinai. catarrh, simple diarrhea, 

G ASTRO - 1';nTER ITIS , ENTE R ITIS . 

/^fc^H K conditions known as j^astro-intestinal catarrh 
I \ and gastro-enterilis may be regarded as different 
^^i^ decrees of the same process, or as the same disease 
but much more intense in one case than the other. 
The stomach and intestine are both affected. With en- 
teritis the inflammatory process isconfimed to the intes- 
tine. During the life of the bird it is somewhat diffi- 
cult to make a distinction between these three condi- 
tions and it is, therefore, more convenient from a 
practical jioint of view to group them together. By 
postmortem examination, it is seen that the catarrhal 
process produces comparatively slight changes in the 
walls of digestive organs and that these are super- 
ficial and near the epithelial surface, while in gastritis 
and enteritis there is more redness and thickening, and 
the inflammation extends not only to the deeper layers 
of the mucous membrane but to the other coats of the 
stomach and intestine. 



DISKASl'.S OF I'(MJI/rKV. 89 

Causation. — The cause of simple inflammation of 
the dij^estive tract is to be souglit either in the quantity 
of the food, the quality of the food or of the drinking 
water, or the atmospheric conditions to which the 
bird has Ijeen exposed. This form of inflanunation 
should not be confounded with that which is caused 
by irritating poisons, or by the various kinds of para- 
sites which are liable to develop in the digestive tube. 

Inflammation of the stomach and intestines may re- 
sult from overloading the stomach ; from too stimulat- 
ing rations or from too much pepper, condiments or 
condition powers; from eating tainted, moldy or 
putrefying food; from drinking water which has 
been contaminated with filth and which has stood 
in a warm place or. in the sunshine until it has 
become putrid ; from exposure to draughts, cold 
rains or damp coops, particularly during the molt- 
ing .season. It most freciuently affects young birds 
and the improved Vjreeds. 

Symptoms. — There is loss of appetite, roughness of 
the ];lumage, depression and indisposition to move. 
The crop is generally distended, its walls are partially 
paralyzed and it empties slowly ; in some ca.ses it may 
contain no food. There is frequent expulsion of soft, 
whitish, yellowish or greenish excrement, which is 
irritating to the cloaca and to the neighboring parts. 
The droppings gradually become more liquid until a 
severe diarrhea sets in. The expulsion of the excre- 
ment may be accompanied by a spasmodic and pain- 
ful contraction of the bowels which causes the bird to 
strain or to stop suddenly when walking. The mucous 
membrane of the cloaca becomes inflamed, and the 
feathers surrounding it are stuck or glued together. 
There is increa.sed thirst, elevation of temperature, 



90 DISEASES OF POULTRY. 

hemorrhages from the intestines may occur, and the 
progressive weakness and exhaustion soon end in 
death. . In the mild cases of gastro -intestinal catarrh 
there may be no symptoms other than those of diarrhea, 
but in the more severe cases of this disease and in gas- 
tro -enteritis and enteritis the greater part or all of the 
symptoms mentioned above are observed. 

Treatment. — In the treatment of this class of 
diseases it is especially important that the cause should 
be sought and removed. See that the birds are com- 
fortable and not exposed to draughts, cold, or dampness. 
Give pure drinking water and regulate the food. Al- 
low small quantities of mash or cooked food, with 
some chopped beef. Put a handful of oatmeal in the 
drinking water or give milk for drink. Give a table - 
spoonful of olive oil as a laxative to carry off any 
irritating matters that may be in the intestine, then 
follow with y^, to 1 grain of bicarbonate of soda and 2 
grains of subnitrate of bismuth in a little water three 
times a day. In cases where the diarrhea becomes 
serious, with symptoms of pain, fever, or bloody dis- 
charges, omit the bicarbonate of soda and give yk grain 
powdered opium and 2 grains subnitrate of bismuth 
every four hours. If the diarrhea persists after the fever 
has disappeared and the appetite is returning, it may 
be checked with laudanum 5 to 10 drops; or give 10 
drops of a mixture of equal parts laudanum and tinct- 
ure of catechu; or in mild cases add one to two drams 
of sulphate of iron to the pint of drinking water. 

CONSTIPATION, INTESTINAL OBSTRUCTION. 

Constipation is due to an abnormal dryness and 
hardness of the contents of the intestines, which leads 
to the accumulation of the contained substances, and 



DISEASES OF POULTRY. 91 

the consequent distention and obstruction of the in- 
testinal passage. It is sometimes caused by dry, as- 
tringent food; in other cases it results from some irri- 
tation of the mucous membranes ; it may be due to the 
unnatural dryness of the intestine, which often occurs 
after attacks of diarrhea. The intestine may also be 
obstructed by masses of gravel and by quantities of 
parasitic worms. These obstructions may be found in 
any part of the intestinal tract. Frequently, obstruc- 
tion occurs at the lower end of the intestine near the 
external opening. This is caused either by irritation 
of the cloaca or by the drying of excrement upon 
the feathers about the anus, and its continued collec- 
tion until the expulsion of the intestinal contents can 
no longer be accomplished. In all of these cases 
there necessarily follows a great accumulation of mat- 
ter in the intestine above the obstructed point,' the 
moisture is absorbed from this, it becomes dry and hard, 
irritation and inflammation are produced sooner or 
later and the life of the bird is seriously threatened. 

Symptoms. — Birds which are affected with serious 
constipation or intestinal obstruction become dull, lose 
their appetite, stand with arched back, roughened 
plumage, walk with more or less difficulty, are at times 
uneasy and make frequent attempts to expel the 
excrement. By careful examination, the hard impact- 
ed intestine may often be felt through the abdominal 
walls or the obstruction of the cloaca may be dis- 
covered. Frequently, the dried mass of excrement 
may be seen adhering to the feathers and blocking the 
external opening of the bowels. 

Treatment. — When the obstruction has commen- 
ced and is maintained by accumulations of the excre- 



92 DISEASES OF POULTRY. 

ment upon the feathers, the first step is to get rid of 
this obstructing mass. It should be soaked in warm 
water until softened, and then by clipping some of the 
feathers about the vent it is easily removed. If the 
cloaca is filled with a hardened mass, this too should 
be softened with warm water or with olive oil, and 
carefully manipulated until it can be pressed out or 
otherwise removed without injury to the bird. Oil 
may be inserted around such an obstruction with a 
small S3^ringe, or, in the absence of a syringe, an, oil 
can, such as is used for oiling machinery, answers the 
purpose very well. After the oil has been applied 
freely, it may be necessary to wait an hour or two for 
it to penetrate and soften the obstruction before much 
progress can be made towards its removal by manipu- 
lation. The handle of a small spoon or a similar blunt 
instrument is often of assistance in clearing out the 
contents of the cloaca. 

When there is serious constipation or when obstruc- 
tion has taken place higher up in the intestine where 
it can not be reached by external applications, laxative 
or purgativ^e medicines are necessary. The most suc- 
cessful of these are Epsom salts twenty to thirty grains 
dissolved in a tablespoonful of water ; castor oil one to 
two teaspoonfuls ; or calomel one to two grains made 
into pills with butter or lard. The constipation should 
also be corrected as far as possible by regulating the 
rations of the birds. Give soft, watery mashes, green 
feed and bran until the bowels appear to be once more 
in a normal condition. The skillful feeder will gen- 
erally prevent both diarrhea and constipation by care 
ful attention to the diet. 

TOXIC GASTRO-ENTERITIS. 

Acute inflammationof the intestinal tract is frequent- 



DISEASES OF POULTRY. 93 

ly seen in poultry as a result of taking irritant pois- 
ons into the stomach. The symptoms are inflamma- 
tion of the mouth, diarrhea, trembling, convulsions, 
prostration and drowsiness. The affected bird seeks 
a dark and quiet place and is found with roughened 
plumage, the head drawn down to the body, and is 
usually in a sleeping or comatose condition. Unfortun- 
ately, the poisoning is not usually discovered until too 
late for successful treatment. 

The general treatment is the same as for simple 
gastro -enteritis, and with some poisons antidotes may 
be administered, though in most cases treatment is 
without avail. The most common poisons to which 
poultry gain access are the following : 

Chloride of sodium ox.common salt, concentrated lye., 
and nitrate of soda. Common salt is obtained general - 
ly from brine when pork, beef or fish barrels are emp- 
tied, or from eating salt meat. Concentrated lye is 
often carelessly left about the premises where birds can 
reach it. Nitrate of soda being frequently used as a fer- 
tilizer is one of the most accessible poisons. Treatment 
shouldconsist of abundant mucilaginous drinks such as 
infusion of flaxseed, together with stimulants, strong 
coffee and brandy being particularly useful. 

Arsenic, lead, copper, zinc 2^\A phosphorus vad^y cause 
accidental poisoning with poultry. Arsenic in the 
form of Paris green, London purple, etc., is commonly 
used on the farm for poisoning insects; lead and zinc 
are used in paints ; copper is used to destroy fungi on 
grain, fruit trees, vines, and plants; and phosphorus 
exists on the heads of matches. Treatment of arsenical 
poisoning should be with sulphate of iron and calcined 
magnesia, white of ^%.Zy ^^^d flaxseed mucilage. For 
lead, copper, zinc and phosphorus give large quanti- 



94 DISEASES OF POULTRY. 

ties of white of egg:, mucilage and sugar water. 
Kulenberg recommends charcoal pills for phosphorus 
poisoning, or sulphate of copper may be given to cause 
formation of insoluble phosphate of copper. Sulphates 
of soda, potash, or magnesia may be given in lead 
Doisoning with the object of forming insoluble sulphate 
of lead. 

Among the vegetable poisons ct\e:ot of rye is one of 
the most common. It causes trembling, vertigo, in- 
toxication, coma, great weakness, and gangrene of the 
comb, beak, tongue or limbs. As treatment give stimu- 
lants as coffee, brandy, camphor, and quinine. 
BACTERIAL ENTERITIS. 

Inflammation of the mucous surface of the intestines 
due to the multiplication of irritating bacteria must be 
classed among the most common and most injurious 
diseases of fowls. This disease occurs in chickens, 
turkej^s, ducks and probably most other kinds of birds 
and is frequently mistaken for cholera. It is caused 
by several distinct varieties of bacteria, and may be 
either acute or chronic in its form. 

Causation. — The principal germs which have been 
studied in connection with outbreaks of enteritis in 
birds are : 

1. The bacillus gallinarum (Klein, Lucet), a short 
bacillus found in great numbers in the intestines cf 
affected birds, and, also, in the blood. The disease 
may be produced in chickens and turkeys by inoculat- 
ing this germ beneath the skin. If the germs are fed 
with ordinary food they do not cause disease, but if 
fed with animal food the disease may be produced. 
Fowls die in about five days after inoculation. In- 
fection occurs from contaminated food or drinking 



DISEASES OP' POULTRY. 95 

water. The bacillus does not remain localized in the 
intestine but may be found in the liver, kidneys nnd 
blood of birds which have succumbed to the disease. 
Pigeons are insusceptible. 

2. The bacilli described by Cornil and Toupet are 
short rods found in outbreaks of this disease among 
ducks. The3' are found in the intestines, heart, liver, 
spleen and blood. The disease may be transmitted to 
ducks by inoculation or feeding with the germs. 
Chickens and pigeons are not affected by it. 

3. The Mln-io Mctclniikovi, also called the ^/z';-//- 
hun Metclinikovi, is a spiral -shaped germ resembling 
the comma -bacillus. Chickens are ver}' susceptible to 
these germs, and whether they are introduced by the 
air -passages or digestiv.e organs, or inoculated beneath 
the skin, they find their way to the intestines and cause 
inflammation with the symptoms of cholera. Pigeons 
may be infected by inoculation, but do not suffer from 
this germ when it is fed to them. It is seen from this 
brief summary that bacterial enteritis affects principal- 
ly turkeys, ducks and barnyard fowls. The outbreaks 
of this disease are usually confined to a single farm, 
they generally begin early in summer, are at first acute 
and very fatal in their effects, but gradually diminish 
in intensity until they finally disappear. Birds of all 
ages are affected, though the younger ones are appar- 
ently more susceptible. 

Symptoms. — In the acute form the symptoms de- 
velop rapidly. The affected birds are dull, listless, 
and indisposed to move. They have considerable 
thirst, but are withovxt appetite. The comb becomes 
pale, the excrements at first solid and of a greenish 
color, later are soft, liquid, abundant and bluish green. 
As the disease advances, the sick birds stand with the 



96 DISKASKS OF POULTRY. 

back rounded, the plumage erect, the wings drooping, 
th*^ head drawn down to the body, and the eyes closed. 
They gape frequently, their walk is slow, hesitating 
and unsteady. The diarrhea persists, the excrements 
are colored with blood, the strength is rapidly lost, 
and walking becomes more and more dif^cult. In the 
later stages of the disease, the bird sleeps most of the 
time and can scarcely be aroused, a viscid, grayish 
liquid escapes from the mouth, its comb becomes pur- 
ple, and it finally falls upon its side and dies after a 
few struggles. 

In the early stages of the disease the temperature is 
elevated two degrees to four degrees F. , but later drops 
three degrees to five degrees F. below normal. The 
birds die in from one to two weeks after they are at- 
tacked. The chronic form of the disease is character- 
ized by slower development and less marked symptoms. 
The birds are sick three or four weeks before they die. 
Their appetite is capricious, the feathers are rough and 
have lost their lustre, the comb and flesh are pale and 
bloodless, and there is an exhausting diarrhea. If the 
birds are handled the owner is surprised at the great 
loss in weight, as the flesh appears to have almost 
disappeared. This loss of strength and flesh continues 
until the bird dies from exhaustion. In some cases 
temporary improvement is seen; the diarrhea disap- 
pears ; the comb partially regains its colors ; the bird 
appears stronger; but suddenly there comes a relapse, 
the symptoms are intensified, and death follows in a 
day or two. In a few cases the improvement is per- 
manent, and the affected birds finally recover their 
health and flesh. 

In examining the carcasses of the dead birds, the 
liver is found greatly enlarged and distended with 



DISKASKS OF POULTRY. 97 

blood, and if a cut is made into it considerable blood 
escapes. The spleen is also enlarged, but pale; the 
intestines and particularly the caeca are red and con- 
tain considerable mucus. In the chronic form of the 
disease the liver may be found smaller than in health. 

The disease is distinguished from the cholera by its 
longer duration , the tendency to the chronic form, by 
its limitation to a single premises and by the fact that 
it is not transmitted to rabbits by inoculation. It is 
very destructive and from fifty to eighty per cent of 
the fowls on a farm may die before the disease disap- 
pears. 

Treatment. — To prevent outbreaks of bacterial 
enteritis cleanliness should be enforced about the 
poultry buildings, and the birds should be allowed 
only pure and clean drinking water and food that is 
not undergoing putrefaction. When fowls are com- 
pelled to slake their thirst by drinking the foul water 
of stagnant ponds, or the seepage from the barn yard, 
or when they are fed with rotten grain or vegetables 
or with putrid meat, this disease is liable to develop. 
It is, therefore, important to avoid this exciting cause 
of the malady. The trouble may also be introduced 
with sick fowls that are brought upon the place, and, 
hence, the necessity of isolating or quarantining all 
new arrivals until their perfect health is assured. By 
such a precaution not only this disease but all other 
forms of contagion may in many cases be avoided. 

After the disease has broken out among the poultry 
on a farm, the first effort for its eradication should be 
a general cleaning up and disinfection. The disinfec- 
tant may be a five per cent solution of carbolic acid 
for saturating the floor and woodwork of the build- 
ings, followed by a thorough application of lime wash. 



98 DISEASKS OF POUI.TKV. 

The drinking: vessels and ieeding troughs should be 
well scalded with boiling water. This cleaning and 
disinfection should be frequently repeated until the 
disease disappears. The medical treatment of the 
birds has three objects in view; 1. To disinfect the 
intestinal passage 2. To ariest the diarrhea. 3. To 
renew the strength. A good treatment is to give sub- 
nitrate of bismuth three grains, powdered cinnamon 
or cloves one grain, powdered willow charcoal three 
grains. This may be given twice a day mixed with 
the food or made into pills with flour and water. If 
not successful with the formula just given try sub -ni- 
trate of bismuth three grains, bicarbonate of soda one 
grain, powdered cinchona bark two grains, mix and 
give three times a day in a paste made with rice flour. 
When the diarrhea is arrested the bismuth and soda are 
no longer indicated, but a tonic is still advisable. For 
this Megnin recommends : Powdered fennel, anis, cori- 
ander and cinchona of each thirty grains, powdered 
gentian and ginger of each one dram, powdered sul- 
phate of iron fifteen grains. This is thoroughly mixed 
and may be given in the feed so that each fowl will re- 
ceive from two to four grains twice a day. 

As intestinal disinfectants are especially indicated in 
this disease, na])hthol, benzonaphthol, betol and sali- 
cylate of bismuth have been tried and are highly re- 
commended. The dose of each of these drugs is from 
/^ to 1 grain for a full-grown fowl. The following 
combinations will be found useful : Betol yi grain, 
subnitrate of bismuth 1 grain, powdered opium ]/i 
grain. Mix and make into pellets with a little syrup. 
Give at one dose ever}- four hours. Or, benzonaph- 
thol and salicylate of bismuth of each }2 grain, Dover's 
powder '4 grain. 



DISEASES OF POULTRY, 99 

The food of affected birds should be nutritious, 
easily digested, and not too wet. Middlings and meal, 
rice flour or dry bread may be mixed with boiled milk 
into a stiff paste and fed either alone or with the ad- 
dition of boiled and finely -chopped beef or hard-boiled 
egg. The ration should be light until the diarrhea is 
checked and other symptoms of improvement are seen. 

ASTHENIA, GOING LIGHT. 

A disease in fowls in which the most noticeable de- 
parture from the normal condition was their extreme 
emaciation has been investigated by Dr. Dawson of 
the Bureau of Animal Industry. The appetites of the 
affected birds were voracious, there was no evidence of 
existing diarrhea, but on the contrary slight constipa- 
tion. The disease was chronic, ending in death in 
about three months. There was no increase in tem- 
perature. The comb and wattles were paler than 
usual. There were 350 fowls on the premises 30 of 
which had died and 100 were sick at the time of the 
investigation. The diet consisted of a morning meal 
of mash made of six parts bran, four parts of mid- 
dlings, and two parts of meat meal with condition 
powder and charcoal. They had plenty of small 
gravel and crushed oyster shells. At night, wheat, 
corn and oats were fed. Adult Brahma fowls seemed 
most susceptible. The disease makes itself known 
through loss of flesh and was, therefore, called "going 
light." The symptoms appeared to be aggravated by 
damp weather. The disease did not exist, so far as 
could be ascertained, upon any of the neighboring 
premises. 

Examination after death reveals extreme emaciation 
of the muscular system and almost complete absence 
of fat. The walls of the duodenum were reddened and 

L, •fC. 



100 DISEASES OF POULTRY. 

there was catarrh of the mucous surface. A peculiar 
bacterium was found in the duodenal contents. A 
guinea pig was inoculated subcutaneously with a 
small quantity of material from the duodenum and died 
in the course of twenty -four hours with.an extremely 
cedematous and necrotic condition of the tissues over 
the abdomen. The germ was found in the tissues 
at the point inoculated and, also, in the liver, 
spleen, abdominal exudate, heart -blood and lungs. 
Rabbits were inoculated and fed with cultures of the 
organism without result, except when half a cubic cen- 
timeter was injected into the abdomen, in which case 
death followed within twenty -four hours. In the 
rabbits treated in this way. there was severe inflamma- 
tion of the duodenum and omentum, and the germ was 
recovered in large numbers from the walls and con- 
tents of the duodenum and from the liver. Chickens 
were inoculated subcutaneously, into the abdomen and 
into the veins, and were also fed upon cultures with- 
out causing disease in them. Pigeons, mice and rats 
were ref actor y. 

The presence of this germ in the diseased intestines 
of the fowls and its pronounced disease -producing 
powers when inoculated in guinea pigs and rabbits 
warrants the suspicion that it is the cause of the duo- 
denitis and emaciation of the fowls. It is probably 
necessary for it to reach the interior of the duodenum 
before it can cause disease in birds. This germ differs 
materially from the microbes of bacterial enteritis de- 
scribed by other investigators, but the diseases are of 
a similar nature and the treatment shoula be the same. 

PSOROSPERMIC ENTERITIS. 

This is a disease caused by the lowest forms of ani- 



DISEASES OF POULTRY. 101 

mal parasites, viz., the protozoa. The varieties of 
protozoa which cause enteritis are generally spoken of 
SiS pso)-osper))is and the disease which they produce is 
known as psorospermosis or psorospermic enteritis. 
There are two species of psorosperms which have been 
found to produce inflammation in the intestines of 
fowls: The Eimeria diibia {Gregarina avijan intestin- 
al is) and the Cocci diiini tenet I urn. As the symptoms, 
the appearance of the intestines, and the treatment 
varies considerably from bacterial enteritis, it is neces- 
sary to devote a special article to the psorospermic 
form. 

Causation. — These parasites, probably in the con- 
dition of spores, are taken intoihe digestive tube with 
the food or drink. They multiply along the course of 
the intestine, penetrate the mucous membrane, pro- 
duce irritation and set up a series of changes in the 
tissues which very seriously affect the functions of the 
invaded organs. 

The Eimeria dubia mutiplies also in the con- 
nective tissue beneath the mucous membrane^ form- 
ing small cysts, seen as whitish points, which are 
found filled with its spores. The inflammation may 
extend even to the peritoneal coat of the intestine, thus 
producing a complication of peritonitis with en- 
teritis. The lesions resemlle, more or less, those of 
diphtheria and tuberculosis, and as the liver and lungs 
are often invaded we can understand why the disease 
has been csW^^tuberciilo- diphtheria by Megnin, Cornil 
and others. 

The Coccidinm tenelliun is generally found localized 
in the caeca. It multiplies in the mucous membrane, 
producing whitish patches, denuded surfaces, and ul- 
cers, and causes a very intense inflammation. 



102 ' DISEASES OF POULTRY. 

Symptoms.-t- When only a small number of the 
nodules of the Emieria dubia exist in the intestine of 
a fowl, no symptoms of disease are seen and the bird 
does not appear to suffer. When, however, the lesions 
are more numerous, and particularly when the germs 
are multiplying on the mucous surface, considerable 
inflammation results, the ])rocesses of digestion and 
assimilation are interfered with and death may result. 
The principal symptoms are depression, loss of appe- 
tite, diarrhea, weakness, and rapid loss of weight. 

The Coccidium tendhim produces a more acute, and 
rapidly fatal disease. There is progressive weakness, 
stupor, loss of appetite, difficulty of walking, diarrhea, 
sometimes constipation, plaintive cries and death in a 
few days. With young chicks there is diarrhea with 
whitish excrement followed by constipation. With 
adult fowls the diarrhea is abundant and the excre- 
ment may be of a brick -red color or even streaked 
with blood. It is very destructive to young chickens, 
frequently a whole brood dies of it, and it may destroy 
the greater part of those which the possessor of infected 
premises attempts to raise. An examination of the 
caeca generally shows active inflammation, though 
with the chicks which showed constipation the organs 
named were found of a normal color, but distended 
with a hard, yellowish exudate containing many of the 
parasites. 

Treatment. — Preventive treatment is the most 
satisfactory. Disinfect the houses and runs with 
strong carbolic acid solution (three to five per cent), 
and scald out the feeding troughs and drinking vessels 
with boiling water. If possible, change the birds to 
fresh ground that has never been infected. 

As medical treatment, hyposulphite of soda five 



DISKASKS OF POULTRY. 103 

grains, quinine (sulphate) one grain, subnitrate ol 
bismuth two grains may be given two or three times a 
day to grown birds, and less, in proportion to the size, 
to the young chickens. A mixture of equal parts of 
powdered fennel, anis, corriander, gentian, ginger, and 
aloes has been recommended and may be given in the 
dose of about five grains for adults, mixed with soft 
feed . 

The chief reliance in combating this disease should 
be placed in the efforts to eradicate the contagion. 
If disinfection and change of ground are not success- 
ful, dispose of all fowls for a time, plough up th? 
ground, clean up thoroughly and' start with new stock, 
preferably incubator chickens, from healthy flocks. 

INFECTIOUS ENTERO -HEPATITIS OF TURKEYS — BLACK 

HEAD. 

For ten years or more, reports from certain sections 
of the New England States have indicated the exist- 
ence of a serious disease of turkeys, locally called 
"black head," which differs in important respects 
from any malady previously known as affecting p sultry. 
How widely this disease is distributed over the world 
is not yet determined, but information from the Mid- 
dle, Western and Southern States points to its preval- 
ence in those sections, and accounts have also come to 
hand of its ravages in Europe. From these facts it may 
be concluded that the disease is one which has been 
affecting turkeys for many years and has been exten- 
sively disseminated, and that, owing to the lack of 
systematic investigation, it was not described until its 
study was undertaken by the U. S. Bureau of Animal 
Industry. Considerable time was devoted to this 
subject by Smith in 1893 and 1894, and by Moore in 
1895 and 1896. 



104 



DISEASHS OF POULTRY. 



Symptoms. — The symptoms of infectious entero- 
hepatitis have not been very carefully observed, and 
recorded. It isnotuntilthediseasehas made consider- 
able progress that any signs of ill -health 
can be detected. The affected birds 
show more or less loss of appetite, weak- 
ness and emaciation, though one or 
more of these symptoms may not be 
constant. 

Diarrhea is the most marked and con- 
stant symptom and may be expected 
sooner or later in the course of the dis- 
ease. It results from the inflammation 
in the ctieca, which is the starting point 
of the affection, and this imflammation 
exists in all cases. Peculiar discolora- 
tions of the head occur at the height of 
the disease, which have led to the pop- 
ular designation of "black head," but 
Smith is of the opinion that these are 
not constant and that they may accom- 
pany other conditions. 
i\ il The disease attacks quite young turkeys, 
having been recognized in a bird only 
three weeks old, and in this it had 
already made considerable progress. 
The young birds seem to be most sus - 
ceptible, and, as in the older birds 
Fig.17.— Caeca cf the orgaus have the appearance of 

health V turkey. 

long Standing disease, the conclusion 
has been reached that the infection usually occurs at an 
early period of life. The infection is most actively 
propagated during mid -summer, but whether this is 
due to the fact that there are more j-oung birds at that 



DISEASES OF POULTRY. 



105 



time, or whether the warm season favors the dissemi 
nation and the development of the disease is not clear 
That infection may occnr in older 
birds and in cold weather is de- 
monstrated by Moore's experi- 
ments in which turkeys five 
months old and weighing six 
to eight pounds were exposed 
in November and December, and 
in which the disease was well de- 
veloped by the latter part of De- 
cember and the early part of 
January. 

The disease begins in the caeca; 
sometimes it is found in but one 
of these organs but oftener it af- 
fects both. With the progress of 
the disease, the mucous mem- 
brane may be shed and a coagu- 
lable fluid poured out into the 
caecum. In some cases this ex- 
udate appears as isolated masses, 
which adhere to certain spots of 
the mucous membrane; in others, 
it fills the entire tube with a yel - 
lowish -white mass or plug, built 
up of concentric layers and con- 
sisting of a mixture of blood 
corpuscles, fibrin and round cells. 
The wall of the affected caecum is thickened, and the 
inflammation may extend to the outer or serous coat 
upon which yellowish exudates are sometimes seen that 
may bind the organ to the other caecum, to other parts 
of the intestine or to the abdominal wall. In no case 




Fig-. 18. — Caeca of diseas- 
ed turkey. 



106 DISK ASKS OF POULTRY. 




Fig-. 19.— Liver 111 iu-aiiMv imkey. 

were other regions of the digestive tract found affected. 
Associated with this dii-^ease of the cieca, there is in 
nearly all cases a more or less serious disease of the 
liver. This organ is enlarged in proportion to the 
amount of its tissue which is affected. It may l)e 
twice the normal size, and over its surface are seen 
roundish discolored spots, varying from one -eighth to 
two -thirds of an inch in diameter. Some of these 
spots are sharply defined circular areas of a lemon 
yellow or an ochre yellow color. This yellow sub- 
stance represents dead tissue. In other cases the spots 
are whitish and shade off somewhat gradually into the 
surrounding tissue. Another class of spots are of a 
mottled brownish color, darker than the surrounding 
liver tissue. These may have a central yellow nucleus 
of dead tissue, and a narrow outer border of the same 
character, or the border may l)e a dark brownish cir- 
cular line. The entire spot has an indistinct ajipear- 



DISK ASKS OK POULTRY 



107 




Fig'. 20. — Liver ol diseasetl turkey. 

ance and is flattened or even slig:htly depre.ssed below 
the surface. The liver may have few or many of these 
centers of disease, which when cut across are found to 
be deeply imbedded in the tissue of the orj^an and to 
have in general a spherical form. Occasionally the 
lesions are very extensive and the death of large por- 
tions of the liver tissue follows. 

Causation. — The disease is caused by one of the 
protozoa, which Smith has named the Amoeba vielca- 
gridis. This parasite is taken into the digestive or- 
gans with the food or drink, it attacks the mucous 
membrane of the caeca, causing the development of in- 
flammation and leading to the changes already describ- 
ed. The affection of the caecum is due primarily to 
the multiplication of the micro-organism, which takes 



108 DISEASES OF POULTRY. 

place chief!}' in the mucous membrane or the sub -mu- 
cous tissue, or it may, though rarely, extend into the 
muscular coat. According to Smith, the parasites do 
not invade the epithelium at any time. 

The changes in the liver are most easily explained 
by assuming that the micro -parasites are conveyed by 
the blood directly from the diseased caeca into the liver 
and there deposited in different places. In this organ, 
they begin to multiply and spread in all directions, 
thereby forming the spherical centers of disea:;e which 
appear as circles on the surface of the liver. This 
theory is borne out by the results of the microscopic 
examination. 

The course of the disease is variable. In some cases, 
it develops rapidly after infection and the affected 
birds die in from two to six weeks. In other cases, 
the morbid process may come to a standstill, but the 
amount of dead tissue in the caeca and 
liver may be so great as to favor the 
entrance of bacteria, which are directb 
responsible for the death of the bird 
late in the summer or fall. In still 
other cases, regenerative processes may pijr. 2i.-The pro- 
begin and lead to complete and perma- when sepa'/ated'f rom 

fresh tissue, x 1000. 

nent recovery. 

During the course of the affection, the parasitic pro- 
tozoa multiply in the caeca, they are mixed with the 
intestinal contents, and many of them are discharged 
with the excrement. In this way the contagion is 
spread. The food and drinking water become con- 
taminated with particles of excrement containing the 
parasites, the latter are taken by healthy birds into the 
digestive canal along which they proceed until the 
cseca are reached, and here they multiply, penetrate 



loo 




DISEASES OF POULTRY. 



109 





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b 






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lb. 




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! 












c- 


■♦ ^ ^, 


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^'S^B'- 




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Fig. 22. — Sections of diseased liver; a, protozoa in space 
formerly occupied by liver cells; l\ capillaries dilated and 
filled with red corpuscles; f, round cells or leucocj'tes. x 500. 

the mucous membrane and set up the changes which 
constitute the disease. 

Treatment. — It is evident thatthe treatment of in- 
fectious entero -hepatitis must be principally of a hy- 
gienic and preventive nature. Where the disease has 
existed long upon a farm, the roosting places, runs and 
feeding grounds must be infected, and the breeding 
stock are affected in a chronic form and are continually 
disseminating the contagion. This being the case, 
adequate measures must be adopted to free the prem- 
ises from the parasite before healthy stock can be 



no 



DISEASES OF POULTRY. 



raised. Thorough disinfection should of course be 
carried out, using a solution of carbolic acid five parts 
to one hundred parts of water. All of the turkeys on 
the farm should be killed in order to certainl}^ get rid 
of the infected ones. In starting a new flock, obtain 
eggs from healthy stock and hatch them under com- 
mon fowls or in an incubator. Raise the young tur- 
keys, if possible, on a part of the farm that has not 
been infected. By following this course, it should be 



. - -\: . '"j;*^. 



V 












o^ 



a-' 



-}) 






Fig-. 23.— Section of mucous membrane of diseased caecum; 
«, nuclei of the epithelium of a crypt; «', mucin cell; '', 
spindle-shaped cells; r, protozoa situated within the meshes 
of the reticulum; d. multinucleated (g-iant) cell, which has 
enveloped some of the protozoa, x 590. 



DISEASES OF POULTRY. Ill 

possible to eradicate the disease and obtain a healthy- 
flock. 

The medical treatment of diseased turkeys has not 
been successful and it is doubtful if it could be profit- 
ably undertaken in any but exceptional cases. Among 
the remedies most likely to be beneficial are sulphur, 
sulphate of iron, quinine, salicylic acid,benzonaphthol 
and betol. Where a flock has recently been infected 
it would be well to try these remedies with a view of 
arresting the disease in the mildly aflected birds, and 
of preventing the infection of others by making the in- 
testinal contents unsuitable for the multiplication of 
the parasite. Sulphur 5 to 10 grains, sulphate of iron 
1 grain may be combined and given at one dose. Or 
give benzonaphthol 1 grain, salicylate of bismuth 1 
grain. Or give sulphur 10 grains, sulphate of iron 1 
grain, sulphate of quinine 1 grain. Hyposulphite of 
sodium may be useful in doses of 2 to 4 grains, or be- 
tol in the dose of 1 grain. It is necessary that such 
remedies be repeated two or three times a day and 
continued for a considerable time to obtain results. 
The doses mentioned are for birds weighing four or 
flve pounds. 

PARASITIC WORMS WHICH INFEST THE DIGESTIVE 
APPARATUS. 

A large number of species of animal parasites are found 
in the various organs of the digestive apparatus of the 
domesticated birds. Some of these parasites cause dis- 
turbances of the digestive functions or serious disease, 
while others are apparently harmless. Those only are 
referred to in detail which are of most importance as 
disturbers of nutrition or producers of disease. The 
parasitic worms may be grouped as tapeworms, flukes, 
roundworms, and thorn -headed worms. 



112 



DISKASKS OF POULTRY. 



PARAsrn;s of the cksophagus and stomach. 
The Dispharoi^us spiralis, a round worm about 

one -third inch in length is found in the oesophagus of 
fowls. A worm supposed to be 
of the same species is sometimes 
found encysted in the connective 
tissue around the oesophagus, 
crop, and proventriculus, also 
in the walls of the intestine and 
in the mesentery. The Disphar- 
ai>;HS nasutus, a worm about 
one -fourth inch long has been 
found in the walls of the fowl's 
gizzard. I^egros reported an 
epizootic disease caused by this 
worm in a poultry -yard where 
several breeds of fowls were 
kept, of which the Crevecoeurs 
suffered most severely. The 
affected birds became emaciated, 
were dejected, and died exhaust- 
ed without having lost their 
appetite. During their last days 
they were unusually voracious. 
The gizzard was studded with 
the Dispharagus nasiitus, some 
of which were entirely hidden in 
the substance of the mucous 
membrane, while others were 
fixed in it by one extremity, 

the other floating freely in the cavity of the organ. In 

certain places they were packed together in a compact 

mass. 




Fip. 24.— Hetcrakis pcrspi- 
cillum. [Asi-itris iiifhxa.) </, 
male, /', female, x 2. 



DISEASES OF POULTRY. 113 

The Trichosoma contorUim is a round worm, the 
male of which is one -half to three -fourths inch in 
length and the female one and one -fourth to one and 
one-half inches. It is found in the cervical dilatation 
of the oesophagus where, according to Railliet and 
I/Ucet, it causes in Pekin ducks an engorgement or ob- 
struction by accumulation of food. This obstruction 
is analogous to the impacted crop found in fowls and 
pigeons. 

The disease caused by these parasites has been called 
the ingluvial indigestion of ducks and has been at- 
tributed to the food being too dry, or too abundant, or 
swallowed too hurriedly. The chief factor in causing 
the disease appears to be this worm, which lives in the 
walls of the oesophagus, where it bores channels or 
galleries and weakens the tissues. In examining, 
after death, the affected birds, the cervical portion of 
the oesophagus was found enormously distended with 
food, while its walls were very thin and congested. 
To the naked eye or through a hand lens the mucous 
membrane at that part shows white or light yellow 
lines, sometimes slightly raised above the surface. 
These lines are found on microscopic examination to 
be galleries beneath the mucous membrane which 
have been formed by the worms in their move- 
ments, and in which these worms and their eggs may be 
readily seen. As many as thirty of these worms have 
been found in the oesophagus of one bird. 

The action of this parasite is believed to be mechani- 
cal. In boring through the walls of the oesophagus, 
the tissues are weakened, leading to imperfect contrac- 
tion of the muscular fibres. The food collects in the 
cervical dilatation, the contractions of the walls are not 
sufficiently vigorous to force it onward, and dilation 
with impaction follows. The impacted oesophagus 



114 DISEASES OF POULTRY. . 

presses upon the pneumog:astric nerve and may pro - 
duce asphyxia. The disease appears to be confined to 
young Pekin ducks. The symptoms are arrest of 
growth, emaciation and weakness with sometimes epi- 
leptiform attacks. In about five to ten days a swell- 
ing at the lower part of the neck is observed which 
rapidly increases, leading to death in one or two days. 
Treatment. — Garlic may be mixed withthe feed as 
recommended for the Synganncs tracheal is or gape worm. 
Probably one of the best remedies is essence of turpen- 
tine. It may be mixed with twice its quantity of olive 
oil and one to two tablespoonfuls given for a dose. 

PARASITES OF THE INTESTINES AND PERITONEUM. 

The following list comprises the parasitic worms of 
the intestines and of the neighboring parts. It is given 
in condensed form in order to convey a clear idea of the 
number and location of these parasites and the species of 
birds which they infest. The word fowl is used to desig- 
nate the common barn -yard fowl {Galliis donu'siicus) . 

TAPEWORMS (CESTODA). 

Bothriotcenia longicollis. Fowl ; =i to 1 in. long-; >6 in. 
wide ; intestine. 

Cotiignia digonopofa. Fowl ; lYz to 3 in. long- ; '; in. wide; 
small intestine and Cctca. 

Davainca cesticillus. Fowl ; 4 to 5 in. long- ; 1-25 to 1-12 in. 
wide ; intestine. 

Davainea crassula. Pigeon ; 8 to 16 in. long- ; '& in. wide ; 
intestine. 

Davainea echinobothrida. Fowl ; 2 to 4 in. long ; 1-2S to Yd 
in. wide ; intestine. 

Davainea proglottina. Fowl ; 1-16 to 1-12 in. long-; 1-50 in. 
wide ; intestine. 

Davainea sti-uffiionis. Ostrich. 

Davainea tetragona. Fowl ; >2 to 8 in. long-; 1-16 to 's in. 
wide ; intestine. 

Dicranotcrnia coronula. Duck ; 5 to 8 in. long- ; 1-15 to >'s 

1. wide ; intestine. 



DISEASES OF POULTRY. 115 

Dicranotcsnia sphcnoides. Fowl; l-i2 to ' c, in. long- ; 1-25 
in. wide ; intestine. 

Drepanidotcpnia anaiina. Duck ; 8 to 12 in. long- ; 1-12 to ]i 
in. wide , intestine. 

Drepanidotcenic faciata. Goose ; 2 to 6!^ in. long-; 1-25 to 
1-12 in. wide; intestine. 

Drepanidotcsnia gracilis. Duck and g-oose; 10 in. long; 1-16 
to 1-12 in. wide ; intestine. 

Drepanidotcz'tiia infundibuliformis. Fowl and duck; 1 to 8 
in. long-; 1-2S to 1-12 in. wide ; Intestine. 

Drepanidotcenia lanceolata. Duck and g-oose ; 1 to 6 in. 
long ; % to Yz in. wide ; intestine. 

DrepatiidotcPtiia setigera. Goose ; 8 in. long ; 1-25 to >s in. 
wide ; intestine. 

Drepanidotcsnia sinuosa. Duck and g-oose ■, 2 to 7 in. long- ; 
1-25 to 1-12 in. wide ; intestine. 

Drepanidotcsnia tenuirostris. Goose; 4 to 5 in. long- ; 1-25 
to y% in. wide; intestine. 

Echinoxotyle Rosscteri. Duck; young- specimens 1-16 in. 
long ; 1-100 in. wide ; intestine. 

Tcenia cantatiiana. Turkey ; Yz in. long ; intestine. 

Tcenia Delafondi. Pigeon ; intestine. 

Tcsnia exilis. Fowl; 1 in. long; 1-25 to 1-12 in. wide; intestine. 

Taenia Krabbei. Goose. 

Tcrnia inalletcs. Fowl and duck ; 1>2 to 8 in. long ; ^ in. 
wide ; intestine. 

Taenia tnegalops. Duck; 1-5 to 2 m. long- ; 1-20 in. wide ; 
intestine. 

FLUKES (TREMATODA). 

Cephalogoninius ovatus. % to >j in. long ; 1-12 to Yt, in. 
broad ; fowls and g-eese ; bursa of Fabricius. 

Crossodera linearis. Y2 in- long ; 1-16 in. broad ; fowls ; 
caeca and rectum. 

Echinostontum echinatum. Light red in color ^ to "^ in. 
long, Y^ ill- broad ; fowls, ducks and geese ; caeca and rectum. 

Mesogonirrms conimutatus. Yi in. long, 1-12 in. broad ; 
fowls and turkeys ; caeca. 

Notocotyle verrucosum. Pink in color, 1-12 to % in. long; 
1-30 to 1-20 in. broad ; fowls, ducks and geese ; ca^ca. 

ROUND WORMS (NEMATODA). 

Ascaris crassa. Male 'i in. long; female 2 in. long ; duck; 
intestine. 



116 DISEASES OF POULTRY. 

Heterakis comprcssa. Male 2 in. long; female Z^,i in. long; 
fowl ; intestine. 

Heterakis differens. Slightly larger than papulosa ; fowl ; 
posterior portion of intestine. 

Heterakis dispar. Male Yz to % in. long ; female -'3 to 1 
in. long ; goose ; caeca. 

Heterakis maculosa. Male % to 1 in. long ; female 1 to 1>^ 
in. long ; pigeon ; intestine. 

Heterakis papulosa. Male Y^ in. long; female Y^ in. long; 
fowl, turkey, guinea fowl, goose, and peacock ; caeca. 

Heterakis perspicilliim. Male 1 to 3 in. long ; female 2Y\ to 
5 in, long ; fowl and turkey ; small intestine. 

Strongylus tenuis. Male ^'4 in. long ; female '5 in. long; 
goose ; intestine. 

Trichosoma anatis. Male Y i"- long ; female 1 in. long ; 
goose; cjeca. 

Trichosoma annulatum. Male 73 in. long ; female 3 in. 
long ; fowl ; intestine. 

Trichosoma collare. Male Yi in- long" ; female J/j to ^ in. 
long ; fowl ; intestine. 

Trichosoma longicolle. Male -3 to 1 in. long ; female 3 in. 
long ; fowl ; intestine. 

THORN-HEADED WORMS (ACANTHOCEPHALA). 

Echinorhynchusfilicollis. Male Yi in. long ; female Y^ to \% 
in. long ; duck ; intestine. 

Echinorhyrichtcs polymorphus. V(, to 1 in long; orange-red; 
duck and goose ; intestine. 

Echinorhynchus sphccroccphalus. % to -3 in. long; duck; 
intestine. 

Symptoms. — The symptoms which indicate the ex- 
istence of worms in the intestines are not very charac- 
teristic, biit are such as would be expected from ill- 
health due to any chronic disease. The birds become 
dull, weak, emaciated, isolate themselves, are indis- 
posed to search for their food, are stiff in their walk, 
their plumage loses its brilliancy and becomes rough, 
they have diarrhea and sometimes epileptiform attacks. 
In certain cases the symptoms develop rapidly and 



DISEASES OF POULTRY. 



117 



<^ 



birds die as thouo-h from an acute disease. The most 

certain evidence of 
the nature of the 
trouble is the discov- 
ery in the intestines of 
large numbers of one 
or more of the species 
of worms mentioned 
above, upon exami- 
nation of birds from 
the flock which have 
died or which have 
been killed. 

According to Nessl, 
the young fowls 
which harbor numer- 
ous tapeworms lose 
their appetite, become 
'i^ emaciated, dull and 
% feeble, isolate them- 
selves and hold the 
head under the wing. 
Other authorities 
have observed diar- 
rhea, sometimes epi- 
leptiform attacks, 
stiffness in movement 
and the legs strad- 
dling. The only cer- 
tain sign is the pres- 
ence of sections of 
the tapeworms in the 
excrement. 
An enzootic of tae- 
niasis (tapeworm disease), which killed 30 out of a 




^ 



Fig. 25. — Drepanidotaenia infundibuliform- 
is. a, worm natural size; ^,au inverted 
piece of chicken's intestine with numerous 
tapeworms attached. 



118 DISEASES OF POULTRY. 

flock of 36 geese on one farm, was reported by Lucet. 
These birds had been gathered from different 
places, were about two months old, and it was 
supposed they had acquired the germs in a pool 
where they drank. The disease was at first ob- 
scure, and was manifested by arrest of growth, ema- 
ciation, difficult and stumbling walk, a yellow and 
fetid diarrhea, and plaintive cries emitted from time 
to time. The appetite remained normal until nearly 
the last — death ensuing in five to seven days after the 
appearance of the first symptoms. The disease was 
due to Drepanidotiznia setigera. The number in each 
goose was always high, as many as 93 being found. 
With these worms were also found 3 or 4 of the Dre- 
panidotcE7iia lanceolata. 

Various authors have reported enzootics due to the 
Heterakis perspicillum {Hctcrakis injiexa) . Megnin 
gives the symptoms as loss of appetite, emaciation, in- 
difference, somnolency with sudden starts of wakeful- 
ness, and diarrhea. In one outbreak about thirty 
worms were found in each fowl that had died; in 
another, pellets of the worms as large as a pigeon's 
egg were found obstructing the duodenum. 

Lucet observed verminous enteritis in poultry -yards, 
due to the association of various species of worms. 
The affection made slow progress, and the fowls at- 
tacked preserved their appetite, but lost condition and 
became dull and indifferent. Later, the plumage lostits 
lustre and became erect ; while the wings were droop - 
ing and the movements languid. A fetid diarrhea set 
in, wasting became more marked, and the appetite was 
diminished. Soon the creatures remained immovable 
and huddled up, with their eyes half closed; the comb 
and mucous membranes lost their color ; the tempera- 



DISEASES OF POULTRY. 



119 



ture was below normal; the appetite disappeared, and 
the feet were swollen. These fowls often yawned, 
and their torpor and anaemia were extreme; death 
ensued in a tranquil manner 
in the course of one or two 
months. On postmortem ex- 
amination there was observed, 
in addition to the emaciation, 
the lesions of a chronic diar- 
rheic enteritis and the follow - 
ing parasitic worms : Davainea 
p roglottina, Drepa n idotcsn ia 
infundibuliformis, D avaine a 
cestkilhis, Hcterakis papu- 
losa, Hetcrakis perspicillum 
and Trichosoma collare. The 
Davainea proglottina was the 
principal cause of the malady 
and in each case was found in 
thousands, ^he H e t e ra k i s 
papulosa and Heterakis per- 
spicillum were less constant, 
though they had taken a good 
share in the development of the 

disease . Fi/. 26.- Notocotyle verrucosuni. 

The Heterakis maculosa often exists in enormous num - 
bers in the intestines of pigeons and may be so disas- 
trous in their effects as to prevent the raising of these 
birds. As many as 400 to 500 of these worms may be 
found in the intestine of one bird. A microscopic ex- 
amination of the affected bird's excrement reveals in- 
numerable masses of the ova or eggs of the Heterakis. 
In about 7 grams (2 drams) of excrement passed by a 




120 DISEASES OF POULTRY. 

diseased pigeon in twenty -four hours, Unterberger 
found on an average 12,000 of these eggs. Some of 
these eggs were placed on damp blotting paper in a 
flask and their evolution studied. The embryos were 
well formed in about 17 days. These ova were then 
given to perfectly healthy pigeons, when they were, 
in about three weeks, transformed into adult worms. 
When, on the other hand, healthy pigeons were given 
theovaimmediatel}' after their expulsion with the faeces, 
or their discharge from the oviducts, they did not de- 
velop, and were passed with the excrements intact or 
slightly digested. The evolution of the parasite, 
therefore, can only take place beyond the intestine, 
without the necessity, however, of an intermediate 
host. Infestation takes place from pigeon to pigeon, 
through the medium of the food soiled by the excre- 
ments of the diseased birds. 

Treatment. — Parasitic infestation of the digestive 
tract should be guarded against by hygienic measures 
so far as possible, One of the most important of these 
measures is to move the fowls upon fresh ground every 
two or three years, or certainly in all cases where such 
parasites are frequently observed in the intestines of 
the birds. Another practical measure, which may be 
adopted at the same time, is to remove the excrement 
daily from the houses and destroy any parasites or 
their eggs which may be in it, by mixing it with quick 
lime or saturating it with a ten -per -cent solution of 
sulphuric acid. The acid is cheap, but requires that 
great care be taken in diluting it, owing to danger of 
its splashing upon the clothing and flesh and causing 
severe burns. It should always be poured slowly into 
the water used for dilution, but on no account should 



DISKASES OF POULTRY. 121 

water be poured into the acid as it will cause explo- 
sions and splashing. 

When treating diseased birds these should alwaj-s be 
isolated and confined, and their droppings should 
either be burned or treated with lime or sulphuric acid 
as just recommended. Without these hygienic meas- 
ures, medical treatment can only be partially success- 
ful. 

One of the best methods of treating tapeworms in 
fowls is to mix in the feed a teaspoonful of powdered 
pomegranate root bark for every fifty head of birds. In 
treating a few birds at a time it is well to follow this 
medicine with a purgative dose of castor oil (two or 
three teaspoonfuls) . According to Zurn, powdered 
areca nut is the best tapeworm remedy for fowls, but 
he states that turkeys are unfavorably affected by it. 
It may be given in doses of 30 to 45 grains mixed with 
butter and made into pills. Male fern is also a very 
-effectual remedy and may be used in the form of pow- 
der (dose 30 grains to 1 dram) or of liquid extract 
(dose 15 to 30 drops). It should be given in the morn- 
ing and evening, before feeding. Oil of turpentine is 
an excellent remedy for all worms which inhabit the 
digestive canal. It may be giv'en in the dose of one to 
three teaspoonfuls , and is best administered by forcing it 
through a small flexible catheter that has been oiled and 
pissed through the mouth and oesophagus to the crop. 
This medicine is less severe in its effects if diluted with 
an equal bulk of olive oil, but, if it fails to destroy the 
parasites when so diluted, it may be given pure. The 
method of administering medicine by depositing it 
directly in the crop can be advantageously used with 
many other liquid remedies, and should be adopted in 
all cases where it is important to have the full dose in 



122 



DISEASES OF POULTRV. 



the stomach in a short time. It 
does away with the uncertainty 
attending the giving of medicine 
in the feed or drinking water, and 
with a little practice is more ex- 
peditious than making and giv- 
ing pills. The open end of the 
catheter may be inserted into a 
rubber bulb having one opening. 
Just sufhcient air should be ex- 
pelled from the bulb, so that the 
dose of medicine will be sucked 
up without being followed by 
much air. The bird's head is 
then brought in a line with the 
neck, which is extended, the 
catheter is passed carefully to the 
crop, when a slight pressure on 
the bulb forces out the medicine, 
and the instrument is withdrawn. 
The operator should be sure that 
he avoids the trachea. 

For the treatment of the heter- 
akis, Megnin recommends mix- 
ing santonin with the food given 
to the fowls. The powdered 
santonin may be incorporated 
in a cake, the dose being 7 or 8 
grains for each bird. An efficient 

/.&/''^ ma£'1nS" remedy is made by boiling an 
fied 20 diameters.^^^ probos- ^^^^^^ g^^^ of male fern, tausy 

xeZt^J'S^ii and savory in a pint of water. 
^^^^"^^^J;^:^:^ The resulting liquid is mixed 
;«, penis; «, caudal pouch, ^j^-]^ flour, which is then made 




DISEASES OF POULTRY. 123 

into pills and administered to the affected birds. 
Lucet has successfully treated verminous enteritis 
caused by tapeworms and the heterakis,by giving in- 
termittent doses of calomel, 1 -6 to ^3 of a grain, and 
mixing with the feed the heads of santonin, artemisia 
vulgaris and wormwood. 

In treating heterakis infestation in pigeons, the 
healthy should be separated from the diseased ; the 
walls, perches, ceilings, nests, floors and feeding and 
watering vessels must be kept scrupulously clean and 
frequently disinfected; the grain upon which they are 
fed should not be scattered over the ground but placed 
in proper receptacles which are not likely to be con- 
taminated with the excrement. It is well to mix ani- 
seed, salt, and other substances appetizing to pigeons, 
and also coarsely powdered areca nut, with the grain. 
Each diseased pigeon may be given 1 -10 of a grain of 
calomel worked up with soft bread or made into pills 
with butter (Zurn). Some authors recommend feed- 
ing peas which have been macerated for several hours 
in a cold decoction of wormwood. The remedies 
which have been used for heterakis in fowls are also 
applicable to pigeons. 

No treatment is given for fowls affected with trema- 
todes or flukes as these parasites so far as is known do 
not affect the health of the birds which they infest. 

THE NODULAR T.^NIASIS OF FOWLS. 

An intestinal disease of fowls, characterized by nod- 
ules closely resembling tubercles in the walls of 
the small intestine and colon, was described by 
Moore, in 1895, as the result of investigations con- 
ducted for the Bureau of Animal Industry. On 
the serous surface of the intestine these nodules 



124 



1)isi>:asks of poui/rRv. 



Jt 







Fiy-. ^S. (() I'icco of the intestine of a fowl showititr the 
notliiles (reiluceil tiin'-tliircl). (/>) The niuct>s:i of the in- 
testine sliowiiijr ulcerated areas; also several small and 
one larjrer tapeworm attached to the intestine (reduced 
one-thirdl. (<) A cross-section of the intestine illustratinjf 
the thickening' of the wall due to a lar^re number of the 
nodules; also a portion of a tapeworm which has pene- 
trated the mucous membrane, magnified. 



have the appearance of closely set protuberances, some 
being so small that the elevation caused by them is 
scarcely visible, while others are larger, reaching 1 -6 
inch in diameter. The larger nodules are of a pale 
or dark yellowish color, while the smaller ones vary 
in shade from this to the neutral graj' of the normal 
serous membrane. To the touch they give the sensa- 
tion of small, oval, solid bodies in the wall of the in- 
testine. The mucous surface presents similar eleva- 
tions and attached to this over the elevations a number 
of tapeworms are seen. In the niv^re advanced cases a 
variable number of small ulcerated depressions, 1 -25 
inch in diameter or less, are seen over the larger 
nodules caused by sloughing of the mucous membrane. 



UISKASKS OF POULTRY. 



125 



r 

■'4 







The larger nodules contain a greenish -yellow necrot- 
ic substance. The contents of the smaller nodules iii 
more purulent, while the smallest appear simply as an 
area of inSltration. Microscopic examination shows 
that the heads of the tapeworms have penetrated the 
mucous membrane and 
are situated in different 
layers of the intestinal 
wall. They are fre- 
quently observed be- 
tween the villi. The 
heads are not readily 
detected in the necrotic 
mass contained in the 
larger nodules but may 
almost invariably be 
seen in the smaller ones. 
In some cases the tape- 
worm can l;e traced 
through the mucous 
membrane to the nodule 
in the muscular coat in 
which its head appears. 
The worms attached to 
the mucous membraneare 




r.tr 



( A cross section of a nodule 
coiitaininti' a sequestrum situated in the 
outer or lonj^itudinal muscular layer, 
(circular layer of the muscular wall not 
affected). (/>) A section shovvin}^ a tape- 

USUally small , but larger worm and a necrotic mass within the 

muscular wall, (r j A portion of a cross- 

OneS believed to be of the section of the intestine showintrthe head 

of a tapeworm within the muscle and one 

same species are found lyinf between the vilU with its head 

restinfr on the basement membrane of 

in the intestinal con- the mucosa, matrnified. 

tents. If the intestine is opened and the mucous sur- 
face carefully washed under a stream of water, the small 
worms are clearly observed hanging from the mucous 
membrane. The nodules are most numerous in the 
lowest third of the small intestine, but are occasionally 



126 DISEASES OF POULTRY. 

found ill small numbers in both the duodenum and 
colon. The larger and to all appearances the older 
nodules are found in the ileum near the cseca. 

The only symptom noted in connection with this 
disease is emaciation in the advanced stages. The 
affection probably can only be recognized by a post- 
mortem examination of the affected birds. It is of 
particular importance that the principal features should 
be known, in order to prevent this disease being con- 
founded with tuberculosis. 

The tapeworm which causes this malady is believed 
to be the Davainea tetragona, though on account of the 
unsettled condition of the classification of avian tape- 
worms it is diihcult to make a positive determination 
of the species at this time. 

No experiments have yet been made as to the best 
treatment for this form of taeniasis, but the hygienic 
measures and medical treatment recommended for 
tapeworms in general are applicable to this, as well as 
to other species. Vigorous measures should be insti- 
tuted as soon as the malady is recognized or all of the 
birds running together will soon become infested, and a 
long time will be required to eradicate it from the flock 
and from the premises. 






DISEASES OF POULTRY. 127 



CHAPTER V 



Diseases of the Peritoneum, IvIver, and Spleen, 



PERITONITIS, INFLAMMATION OF THE PERITONEUM — CHRONIC 
PERITONITIS, ASCITES, ABDOMINAL DROPSY — DISEASES 
OF THE LIVER — CONGESTION OF THE LIVER — INFI.AMMA- 
TION OF THE LIVER, HEPATITIS— ICTERUS, JAUNDICE, 
BILIARY REPLETION — ATROPHY OR WASTING OF THE 
IJVER — FATTY DEGENERATION OF THE LIVER — FATTY 
LIVER — TUBERCULOSIS OF THE LIVER, SPLEEN AND PERI- 
TONEUM. 



PERITONITIS, INFLAMMATION OF THE PERITONEUM. 

/^■■^HE peritoneum is the delicate serous membrane 
/ \ which lines the abdominal cavity and covers 
^^i^ the surface of the organs situated in that cav- 
ity. Inflammation of this membrane some- 
times occurs as a result of the extension of a se- 
vere inflammation of the intestine, liver or kidneys 
to this neighboring tissue ; or from perforation of 
the intestine and the escape of a portion of the 
intestinal contents into the abdominal cavity, 
or from rupture of the oviduct. It is also caus- 
ed by injuries or bruises of the abdominal wall; 
and by the irritation due to parasites in the abdomin- 
al cavity, or by the introduction of septic matter in the 
operation of caponizing. 

Symptoms. — The acute cases develop rapidly and 
with much intensity. There is loss of appetite, fever, 
restlessness, and painful efforts to void the excrement. 
The abdominal walls are hot and painful if pressed 
upon, the birds rapidly lose strength, until no longer 



128 DISKASES OF POULTRY. 

able to stand and there are convnlsive movements of 
the lim])S followed by death. 

On opening the abdominal cavity of birds which 
have died the lining membrane is found to be deep red 
in color, and is sometimes covered by an exudate 
which may consist of a thin transparent fibrinous 
ayer oi i* niay ne thick, yellowish or reddish -yellow 
and opa.ae. The abdomen may contain more or less 
liquid which may be transparent or it may be turbid 
and tinged with a yellow, or reddish -yellow color. 
If the trouble is due to perforation of the intestine, 
this liquid will have a very offensive odor from the 
multiplication of putrefactive germs. If it has re- 
sulted from ru])ture of the oviduct, an egg, either in- 
tact or broken, will generally be found in the abdom- 
inal cavity and the ruptured place in the wall of the 
oviduct is easily discovered. 

Treatment. — Peritonitis is a very difficult disease 
to treat and it is only in the milder cases that success 
can be reasonal)ly ex])ected. The affected birds must 
be kept quiet and protected from currents of air, and 
opium in doses of one grain every four hours is recom- 
mended to quiet the pain and reduce the movements 
of the intestine, or mix 3 or 4 drops of tincture of 
aconite in half a glass of water and give a teaspoonful 
three or four times a day. Injections of tepid water 
are indicated to counteract constipation. Flannels 
dipped in hot water should l)e squeezed partly dry 
and applied to the abdominal wall, renewing them as 
often as necessary to keep up a moist heat. This 
treatment should be continued for half an hour to 
an hour, and repeated three or four times a day, dry- 
ing the surface well, afterwards, so that the bird will 
not take cold. If there is great weakness one or two 



DISEASES OF POULTRY. 129 

droi^is of etiier or four or five drops of tincture of cam- 
phor may be injected under the skin as a stimuhiut. 
In case the disease is due to rupture of the oviduct 
or perforation of the intestine, treatment is useless ; if 
it has followed inflammation of the intestine, the 
treatment for enteritis should be combined with that 
for peritonitis. Peritonitis fromcaponizing should l)e 
guarded against by sterilizing the instruments and 
appljnng a germicide (corrosive sublimate 1 grain, 
water 4 ounces), to the skin before beginning the 
operation. 

CHRONIC PERITONITIS, ASCITES, ABDOMINAL DROPSY. 

Liquid in the abdominal cavity may result from a 
mild or chronic case of peritonitis, and it is said by 
some writers to be due to anaemia in 5'Oung birds, and 
to the obstruction of the venous circulation in older 
ones. The condition is shown by the enlargement of 
the abdomen which is distended until it nearly or 
quite reaches the ground when the bird is standing. 
If examined by slight pressure of the hand the swell- 
ing is found to be soft and fluctuating; it will yield in 
one place and cause a greater distension at another. 
That is, it gives the sensation of a sac filled with 
liquid. 

Fowls affected in this way are dull, disinclined to 
move, generally feeble, with pale comb and diminish- 
ed appetite. 

The treatment of this condition is not profitable, 
but, in special cases, stimulating diet with consider- 
able animal food, tonics and diuretics, may be tried. 
Iodide of potassium or iodide of iron in doses of 1 
grain is particularly indicated. 

DISEASES OF THE LIVER. 

The liver is one of the largest and most important 



130 DISKASKS nv POULTRY. 

org-ans in the bird's body. It not only prepares the 
bile, which is one of th.e princi]nil digestive liquids, 
but it assists in some of the most necessary chemical 
changes which occur in the blood. This organ con- 
tains numerous blood vessels through which passes a 
very large quantity of blood, and it is particularly 
sul)ject to the attacks of various kinds of parasites. 
Most of these parasites i)robably find their way to the 
liver throug'h the blood channels, lodge in the minute 
capillary vessels, and begin tlieir multiplication and 
disease -i)roducing action. 

Among the parasites which most frequently affect 
the liver of fowls are the chicken cholera bacteria, the 
tubercle bacillus, the protozoa of black-head (tur- 
keys), and the aspergillosis fungus. These variously 
cause congestion, inflammation, and death of the tis- 
sue. 

The liver is very subject to congestion and this fre- 
quently occurs from errors in feeding and as a result 
of irritation in the neighboring intestines; it is, also, 
frequently affected with atroi^hy and fatty degenera- 
tion. 

coN(;i';sTiON of the livkr. 

The liver of fowls is often found in a congested con- 
dition as the result of lack of exercise combined with 
over-feeding; also from the birds taking tainted or 
moldy food or poisonous substances of various kinds 
into their digestive organs; from the effects of infec- 
tious diseases, particularly cholera ; and from obstruc- 
tion to the circulation of blood by disease of the heart 
or lungs. It is often seen in birds which are in pleth- 
oric condition or very fat. 

The symptoms are obscure and it is difficult to 
make a diagnosis during the life of the affected l)ird. 



disi-:asi"s oi-' poin/rkv. 131 

The postmortem examination reveals a greatly enlarged 
liver engorged with l)lood, tender and easily torn or 
crnshed. 

If the condition is suspected in time for treat- 
ment give sulphate of magnesium or sulphate of 
sodium in a ])urgative dose (20 grains to a dram) and 
follow with sulphate of magnesium lU grains, bicar- 
bonate of sodium 2 grains, repeated daily for a week. 

The disease should l)e prevented by ])roper feeding, 
regular exercise, and protection from i)arasites and 
infectious diseases. 

INFLAMMATION OF THE LIVEK, HEPATITIS. 

This disease is due to the causes enumerated as 
producing congestion of the liver and is a different 
and more advanced stage of the same process. 

The symptoms are loss of appetite, sluggishness, 
tenderness over the abdomen and sometimes a yellow- 
ish color or jaundice of the skin. 

The treatment of birds so affected is not profitable 
unless they are very valuable for breeding or exhibi- 
tion purposes. It is well to begin with 1 -2 to 1 grain 
of calomel, followed with 2U grains of Epsom salts and 
2 grains of bicarl)onate of soda after twelve hours. 
Naphthol or ben/.onaphthol may be given twice a 
day in 1 grain doses to disinfect the intestinal canal. 
If the diarrhea is excessive and weakens the bird, 
treat as recommended for that disease. 

When marked improvement is shown, give green 
food, tonics, and raw beef, and allow the bird free 
exercise in the open air. 

ICTERUS, JAUNDICE, BILIARY REPLETION. 

According to Megnin, moderate and persistent con- 
gestion of the liver, whether due to plethora or to long 
continued use of food containing a large proportion 



132 DISEASES OF POULTRY. 

of Starch or oil, such for example as corn, may lead to 
an exaggeration of the functions of the liver charac- 
terized by the accumulation of a large quantity of bile 
in the gall bladder, or in the gall ducts of birds,' like 
pigeons, which have no gall bladder. The bile is so 
abundant that it penetrates the adjoining organs by 
imbibition and colors them for a considerable distance. 
In some cases the bile is thick, dry and hard like a 
piece of black soap. 

In these cases the bile distends the gall bladder and 
the ducts, sometimes because of its abundance, at 
other times because owing to its thickness it does not 
flow freely into the intestine, and in still other cases 
because the caliber of the duct has been reduced by 
inflammation. In all of these cases the result is the 
same — the bile is absorbed by the blood vessels, caus- 
es jaundice and poisoning, which soon leads to the 
death of the bird. 

Unfortunately, the nature of the disease is only oc- 
casionally suspected before death. With birds having 
combs and wattles, or those which have the borders 
of the eyes or cheeks free from feathers, a close ob- 
server may detect the yellowish or mahogany color of 
these parts. 

When this symptom is observed, or when nponposf- 
mortem examination of a bird the distention of the 
liiliary reservoirs is made out, and other birds are 
thought to be similarly affected, Megnin recommends 
purging with 1-2 to 1 grain of aloes, and a complete 
change of food giving as great a variety of ingredients 
as is convenient. 

ATROPHY OR WASTING OF THE LIVER. 

The wasting or shrinkage of the liver, known tech- 
nically as atrophy, is generally associated with liard- 



DISEASFS OF POULTRY. 133 

ening and sometimes with a marked 5'ellow coloration. 
It has been considered by some authorities as due to 
compression, and may result from this cause when 
there is a great accumulation of fat in the abdominal 
cavit}^ In most cases, it probably results from 
chronic inflammation. Some excellent authorities re- 
gard it as caused almost entirely by infections and in- 
toxications. No doubt most forms of irritation wh.ich 
set up chronic inflammation, will produce atrophy. 

In this disease the surface of the liver is often more 
or less granular, the small centers of glandular tissue 
being shrunken, undergoing degeneration, and sur- 
rounded by thickened connective tissue. This pro- 
cess is accompanied by the o1:>literation of old vessels 
and the formation of new ones, there is even a forma- 
tion of new bile ducts, which, however, is more or 
less incomplete as most of the new ducts fail to per- 
form their functions. 

The symptoms are obscure and the disease difficult 
to recognize during the life of the bird. There is seen 
only dullness, drowsiness, stupor and possibly con- 
vulsions. 

This disease should be guarded against by giving a 
properly balanced ration, being particular to avoid an 
excess of starch or fat. Allow plenty of exercise with 
green feed, avoid grain or meal that is musty or moldy 
as well as decomposing food of any kind. 

The early stages of atrophy should be treated with 
calomel, saline purgatives and alkaline salts as re- 
coraiAended for hepatitis. 

FATTV DEGENERATION OF THE LIVER. 

This is a rather common disease of birds, and has 
been attributed to lack of variety in the food, too close 
confinement and insufficient exercise. 



134 DISEASES OF POULTRY. 

On postiiiorieiii examination the liver is ft)uml 
shrunken, hardened and marbled or spotted with 
areas of' grayish or yellowish tissue. A microscopic 
examination shows the liver cells to contain droplets 
of fat and the liver tissue degenerated and largely re- 
I^laced by yellow fat globules. 

As the disease is not recognized during life, treat- 
ment is out of the question. If a number of cases oc- 
cur in the same flock, give greater variety of food and 
a run on grass. In addition, iMcarbonate of soda may 
be given in the drinking water to the amount of one 
or two grains a day for each bird. 

FATTY I.IVlvK. 

It is contended bj^ authors who have examined into 
the subject, that the fatty livers which are so skill- 
fully developed by certain feeders of geese and ducks, 
and which are considered a great table delicacy should 
not l)e confounded with livers which have undergone 
fatty degeneration. The latter is a disease while the 
former is simply a physiological condition. In fatt}' 
degeneration the liver is shrunken, there is a formation 
of fat within the cells and destruction of the cells, 
while in fatty livers the fat is deposited lietween the 
microscopic elements of the liver, and this organ is 
thereby enlarged and rendered more succulent and 
delicate, but there is no destruction of the cells. If 
the process of fattening is j^roperlj^ carried out there 
is, consequenth', no disease. 

tubf:rculosis of the i.iver. spleen an?) 
pi>:ritoneum. 

This disease is manifested liy whitish or yellowish - 
white nodules and aggregations of nodules varying in 
size from a mere point to an inch or more in diameter. 



DISKASKS OF POULTRY. 135 

These develop either in the peritoneum or in the tissue 
of the liver and spleen. Rupture of the liver with 
fatal bleeding' is said to be sometimes observed in cage 
birds affected with tuberculosis. The disease is of 
the same nature as tuberculosis of the lungs, and is 
treated at length in another chapter. As the disease 
is incurable, no treatment is recommended, 1)eyond the 
sanitary measures for the eradication of the contagion 
mentioned in the general article upon this subject. 




136 DISEASES OF POULTRY. 



CHAPTER VI. 



Diseases of the Organs of Urination and Re- 
production. 



BRIEK DESCRIPTION OF THE ORGANS OF URINATION — PAREN- 
CHYMATOUS NEPHRITIS, INFLAMMATION OF THE KID- 
NEYS — ABSCESS OF THE KIDNEYS — OBSTRUCTION OF THE 
CIvOACA BY URINARY CONCRETIONS — THE MALE ORGANS 
OF REPRODUCTION — HYPERTROPHY OR ENLARGEMENT OF 
THE TESTICLES — CANCER OF THE TESTICLES — FATTY DE- 
GENERATION — THE FEMALE ORGANS OF REPRODUCTION — 
ATROPHY OF THE OVARY — TUMORS OF THE OVARY — 
GANGRENE OF THE OVARY— INFLAMMATION OF THE 
OVIDUCT — PROLAPSUS OR EVERSION OF THE OVIDUCT — 
DIFFICULT LAYING, EGG BOUND, OBSTRUCTION OF THE 
OVIDUCT — GANGRENE OF THE OVIDUCT — RUPTURE OF 
THE OVIDUCT — CLOACITIS, VENT GLEET — ANOMALIES IN 
E,GG PRODUCTION — EGG INCUBATED IN THE OVIDUCT — 
PARASITES IN EGGS— SANGUINEOUS EGGS— EGGS WITH- 
OUT SHELLS— EGGS WITH TWO YOLKS — INCOMPLETE OR 
ABORTED EGGS — EGGS WITHIN EGGS. 



BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE ORGANS OF URINATION. 

/^■■•'HK urinary apparatus of birds consists of two 

/ \ kidneys and two ureters. There is no bladder, 

^^i^ thecloaca forming a common receptacle for both 

urine and faeces. The kidneys are elongated in 

form, commencing immediately below the lungs and 

extending along the sides of the spine as far as the ter - 

mination of the rectum. They present inequalities of 

surface corresponding to the elevations and depressions 

of the walls of the pelvis. The kidneys of birds aredivid- 



DISEASES OF POULTRY. 137 

ed into three quite distinct lobes, each lobe connecting 
with the ureter. The texture of the kidneys is much more 
frail than in mammalia, readily yielding under the 
pressure of the finger. The lobes are made up of lob- 
ules having somewhat the appearance of the convolu- 
tions of the brain. The uriniferous tvibes do not 
empty into a cavity or pelvis in the interior of the 
kidney as with mammals, but unite upon the surface 
of the gland to form the ureter. 

The ureters are continued along the surface of the 
kidney towards the inner side, being here and the:e 
imbedded in its substance, presenting a series of dila - 
tations corresponding to the principal lobes, and re- 
ceiving the branches of the uriniferous tubes as they 
pass along. Beyond the kidneys the ureters pass behind 
the cloaca, penetrate its walls, and, finally, end in val- 
vular eminences in the lower part of the cloaca. 
The urine as secreted is very thick having the color and 
consistency of cream, being composed almost entirely 
of uric acid. It dries to a chalky paste in the cloaca 
from which it is expelled with the faeces. The excre- 
ment of birds, as is well known, is composed of two 
distinct portions, one white and the other of variable 
color. The former is the secretion of the kidnej's, and 
the latter is the residue of alimentary matters which 
has passed through the intestines. 

PARENCHYMATOUS NEPHRITIS, INFLAMMATION OF 
THE KIDNEYS. 

A case of this disease is recorded by Megnin as hav- 
ing occurred in a Langshan pullet, seven months old. 
The symptoms were evident suffering in the vicinity 
of the kidneys. The bird remained continually lying 
upon its abdomen, only occasionally rising with diffi- 
culty in order to eat. ^\s.it postmorte7n examination re- 



138 



DISEASES OF POULTRV. 




Fi^f. 30.— Urinary and reproductive organs of the hen; a, ovary; /', 
infundibular portion of oviduct; r, portion of oviduct which secretes 
the albumen; c\ uterus or shell-forming portion; </, intestine; d', cloaca; 
e', c', opening- of ureters; r''openingof oviduct; ^'''depression correspond- 
ing to opening of atrophied oviduct;^, bursa of Fabricius;,/",/, f, kidnej' 
divided into three lobes; e, right ureter. 



DISEASES OF POULTRY. 



139 



vealed au enormous enlarofemeut of the two kidneys, 
and upon cutting across these organs there were seen 

numerous black points, 
each representing a small 
interstitial hemorrhage. 
The disease has, also 
been observed by Larch - 
er, Semmer, and others. 
It is often seen with 
pullets. The affected 
birds stop growing, lose 
their appetite, become 
thin, with improperly 
developed feathers and 
roughened plumage. The 
kidneys are found two 
or three times their nor- 
mal size, of a grayish 
color and more firm than 
in health. Microscopic 
examination has reveal- 
ed the existence of min- 
ute organisms, and Sem- 
mer thinks that the dis- 
ease might be caused by 
toxic fungi contained in 

Fijr 31.— Reproductive orj/ans of the the food. 
cock; a, «, testicles; b, fi, epidiclvmis; <, 

r, vas deferens; .Z, cloaca; <;'' bursao'f ABSCESS OF THE KID- 
Fabricius; <>', <>', papilla through which 

the vas deferens oi)en; _/", niarg^in of NEYS. 

anus. 

A case of this disease 
was observed liy Megnin in a small cage bird. The 
kidney was found to contain a yellow nodule formed 
b}' dried pus. No other sign of disease was discover- 
ed. The bird had been ill for a month but contin- 




140 DISEASES OF POULTRY. 

lied to eat. No information could be obtained as to 
the cause of the disorder. 

OBSTRUCTION OF CLOACA BY URINARY CONCRETIONS. 

Numerous instances have been reported of partial 
or com])lete obstruction of the cloaca by the drying 
and hardening of urinary accumulations. This con- 
dition is more or less freciuent with pigeons, pheasants 
and fowls. The concretions are usually composed of 
uric acid or urate of ammonia, but a true calculus 
made up of the carbonates of lime and magnesia, phos- 
phate of lime and mucus has been found in the kidneys 
of a fowl. 

, The concretions in the cloaca are usually associated 
with improper rations, containing too much of the 
nitrogenous constituents. The feeding should be cor- 
rected, animal food reduced, and a cooling non-stimu- 
lating ration substituted. The contents of the cloaca 
should be carefully softened with warm water and re- 
moved. A small quantity of oil injected daily for a 
week will prevent further accumulations and permit 
any local irritation to subside. No other treatment 
is required. 

THE MALE ORGANS OF REPRODUCTION. 

The male organs of reproduction in fowls consist of 
two testicles situated in the abdominal cavity, just be- 
low the anterior parts of the kidneys, and of two ducts 
called the vas deferens which conduct the secretion of 
the testes to the cloaca. It will be observed that the 
cloaca is the common outlet for the faeces, the urine 
and the seminal fluid. Each vas deferens oi)ens 
through a conical papilla in the posterior wall of the 
cloaca. The papillae are surrounded by a remark- 
able plexus of arteries and veins, producing erectile 
tissue, which makes it possible to bring the seminal 



DISEASES OF POULTRY 



141 



1. January. 

2. Middle of FebrLiar\ 



3. Beffinnitiff of March. 



4. Latter end of March. 



liquid in contact with the everted orifice of the ovi- 
duct of the female. In some waterfowls which copu- 
late in water, provision is made for a more efficient 
coitus by the development of a long intromittent organ 
from the highly vascular wall of the cloaca. This is 
seen particularly in the 
drake. In the passive 
state this organ is coiled 
up like a screw by the elas - 
ticity of associated liga- 
mentous structures. 

HYPERTROPHY OR EN- 
LARGEMENT OF THE 
TESTICLES. 

The testicles of birds 
vary greatly in size ac- 
cording to the season of 
the year at which they are 
observed. In winter they 
are very small with a 
comparatively insignifi - 
cant blood supply, but in 
spring, as the breeding 
season comes on, they en - 
large to five or ten times 
the weight during the 

winter, the vessels are distended with blood and the 
height of functional activity is reached. The an- 
nexed drawing showing the enlargement of these or- 
gans in the house sparrow from January to April, 
serves as an illustration of this process. 

While the enlargement just described is strictly phy- 
siological, it is frequently exaggerated from various 
conditions and then becomes a disease. Megnin has 




5. Middle of April. 



-Testes of the House-.spar- 



142 DISEASKS OF POULTRY. 

observed cases where one of these organs was nearly 
fifty times its normal weight ; and it is not uncommon 
to find them two inches in length and nearly as broad. 

Symptoms. — Diseases of this character are not 
easily recognized during the life of the affected bird . As , 
however, the condition is generally accompanied by 
some tenderness and pain, there is uneasiness, a ten- 
dency to sit down or crouch, or, as Hill puts it, sink- 
ing down and rising again, with inclination to remain 
quiet. Such symptoms occurring during the spring 
or early summer .should lead to the suspicion that the 
bird is affected with the disease under consideration. 

Treatment. — Give cooling food with considerable 
green material in it. Do not allow meat or condition 
powder of any kind. Keep the affected bird by itself 
where it will remain quiet. 

Give tincture of aconite root ^4 drop to 1 drop, ac- 
cording to size of bird, three times a day. It is, also, 
well to give Epsom salts sufficient to obtain free move- 
ment of the bowels, about a teaspoonful for an ordi- 
nary sized bird. Some recommend iodide of potassium 
3 grains twice daily in a pill or dissolved in a little 
water. 

CANCER of the TESTICLES — FATTY DEGENERATION. 

Cases are recorded showing that cancer of the testi- 
cles and fatty degeneration of these organs are both 
common with birds. These conditions, however, can 
not be determined until after the death of the bird and 
treatment is for that reason out of the question. The 
diseases mentioned while of scientific interest need not 
be given detailed consideration in this volume. 

THE FEMALE ORGANS OF REPRODUCT'ION. 

In birds, the female organs of reproduction consist 
of a single ovary and a single oviduct. During the 



DISEASKS OF POULTRY. 



143 




Fig-. 33.— R prodnttive org-ansof the hen: a, ovary; b, oviduct; r, infun- 
dibular portion of oviduct; d, depression corresponding to airophicd 
rig-ht oviduct; c, opening- of left oviduct:/, oviduct laid open to sliow 
(■(/(T surrounded with first lavers of albumen; ^, uterusopened to show etrg- 
wiih shell forminfr upon it; //, cloaca; X-, rectum; /, upper portion of anus; 
///,/«, openings of ureters. 



144 DISEASES OF POULTRY. 

earl}' stages of development of the chick the two ova- 
ries are of equal size, but soon the developmental forces 
appear to concentrate in the left ovarj^ while the right 
one remains stationary and ultimately disappears in 
most birds. The single ovary is developed to a re- 
markable degree. It is situated near the left kidney 
and approaches the median line. The external ap- 
pearance is that of a granular or nodular body attached 
to the spinal column by a fold of peritoneum. The 
nodules are irregular in size, some small and whitish, 
others larger and of a j^ellowish color. 

The enlargement of the ovum is due to the accumu- 
lation of the yellow or food yolk, and this causes dis- 
tension of the ovarian capsule or calyx that encloses 
the ovum. As the ovum enlarges its capsule becomes 
more and more separated from the remainder of the 
ovary until it is seen to be attached only by a narrow 
base or pedicle. The calyx consists of two membranes 
united by connective tissue and blood vessels. The 
vessels converge towards a white transverse line or 
band which crosses the most prominent part of the 
calyx. At this line the vessels become so minute as to 
apparently disappear entireh*. This band, called th.e 
stigma, begins to appear when the ova are well devel- 
oped and the line becomes broader and the membranes 
thinner as the ovum increases in size, until at the 
proper time the walls of the calyx give way along this 
line and the ^%^ slips out of its capsule and passes in'o 
the infundibular opening of the oviduct. The empty 
calyx collapses, rapidly shrinks and is ultimatelj^ ab- 
sorbed. 

The ovum as it enters the oviduct consists of a 
viiclhis or 3'olk enclosed in a very thin vitelline mou - 
bfane. Impregnation or fertilization occurs in the 



DISEASKS OF POULTRY 



145 




Fi!j. 35. Fig-. 36. 

Fig'. 34. — Egrjr from upper part of oviduct with coating' of dense albumetr 
called menibrana clialazif era continued into the clialazK. Fisr- 35. — Out- 
stretched chalaz;E from opposite sides of the _yolk showing' opposite turns 
of the spiral. Fig'. 30— Eg'g' from above middle of oviduct with first layers 
of soft albumen. 

upper portion of the oviduct aud soon after the egg' 
escapes from the ovary. Having entered the oviduct 
the ovum is propelled with a rotary motion by the 
peristaltic contractions of that tube, towards the 
cloaca. The contact of the ovum stimulates the lin- 
ing membrane of the oviduct to secrete first a dense 
layer of albumen which is deposited upon the vitelline 
membrane and is continued thread -like from each pole. 
These threads or filaments are the chalazcz and the 
dense layer of albumen with which they are connected 
is the vicmbrana chalazifera. As the o^^^ rotates in 
the oviduct the chalazce become twisted in opposite 
directions, and the one next the small end of the egg 
finally adheres more or less to the membrane lining 
the shell at t^^at point. 



146 



dis1':as1'S of poui.tkv. 



The tgg advances into tl:e more glandular and vas- 
cular ])art of the oviduct and here two other layers of 
albumen are secreted and deposited ujion it. Each of 
these is thinner and more watery than the one which 
preceded. When the narrow part of the oviduct is 
reached, two denser layers of albumen are excreted 
forming the inoubrana pittaminis. Enclosed in tliis 
manner, having acquired its ovate form and with the 




Fig-. 37. Seel km of fowl's eprp; ", shell;/', iiieiiibia' ;i piitain'mis; <,i, 
layers of soft albiinu'ii ; i/, clialaza'; <■, cicau-iciila ami H-ermiiial vesicle; /, 
air clianiber. The outline litrure shows Uie vo 1\ made up of la\ ers de- 
posited successively, c, cicatricula, /', yerniiiial vesicle. 

small end towards the cloaca, the o.^^ enters the uter- 
ine or shell -forming dilatation. The inner surface of 
this portion of the oviduct secretes and deposits 
upon the incmbrana putaminis a thick white fluid 
which condenses, becomes calcareous and forms 
the shell. The time required for the ^<g% to pass from 
the infundibulum to the uterus, in the common fowl, 
is said to be from four to six hours, and it may remain 
here from twelve to twenty hours. 

The color of the egg-shell depends ii])()n i)igmental 
matter secreted by particular follicles of the villous 



DISKASICS Ol' POUI/rRY. 147 

membrane of the uterus. The appearance of pores on 
the surface of the shell is due to the impressions of 
the villi of the formative membrane; but the permea- 
bility of the shell by the atmosphere depends upon a 
more minutely porous texture. Theshell consists in great 
partof carbonate of lime, with a littlecarbonateof mag- 
nesia and phosphate of lime and magnesia (Owen). 

The oviduct is a whitish tube somewhat larger than 
the large intestine and shows many branching blood 
vessels uj^ou its surface. It begins near the ovary by 
an enlarged portion called the infundil)ulum, and 
after being bent upon itself several times and forming 
three principal convolutions, it reaches the cloaca in 
which it opens. In the non -breeding season, when 
the parts are in repose, the ovary and oviduct are re- 
duced in size and almost disappear. 

ATROPHY OK THIC OVARY. 

The ovaries, like the testicles of the male, are great- 
ly reduced in size and atrophied during the non -breed- 
ing season. This, however, is a physiological atroi)hy 
and not a disease. In the same manner, the ovaries 
become atrophied in old hens which have ceased lay- 
ing. This is sometimes, but not always, accompan- 
ied by remarka])le changes in other parts of the body. 
The spurs develop,, the feathers become longer and 
more brilliant, resembling those of the cock, or usual- 
ly approaching more closely to the plumage of the 
capon. Such birds, also, assume to a certain extent 
the voice and habits of the male. 

The complete atrophy of the ovaries is sometimes 
congenital, or, more strictly speaking, these organs 
fail to develop. In other cases, rudimentary organs 
of both sexes are found in the same individual. Birds 
in which this condition exists, also, have a resem- 



148 1)isi':as);s oi" i-oiii/ruv. 

hl.'ince in pluninj^^e, voice, spurs, linl)its, etc.loca 
])()ns, and should l)o fattened and killed for the talile,. 
as they are of no value for other ])uri)oses. 

TUMORS ()l<^ Till', OVARY. 

There are frecjuently found tumors of consideral)le 
size in connection with the ovary. A common variety 
is composed of the yolks of eggs which have matured 
but which ha\'e failed to enter the oviduct. These 
tumors are yellow in color, and are made nj) of 
concentric layers in which the yolk can be recognized, 
as it has somewhat the appearance seen in a cooked 
egg. Mcgnin records a case in which this trouble 
appeared to lie hereditary, as all the hens belont^in.i; to a 
l)articular strain were affected. 

In rare iuNtances, the development of the ovum is 
abnormal, and instead of a mature yolk resulting, the 
calyx is found to contain only a thin liquid, and the 
ovary thus becomes transformed into a mass of cystic 
tumors sus])en(led upon long pedicles. Cancerous tu- 
mors of the ovaiy have also been observed. 

Treatment is, of course, impossible in these cases as 
the nature of the disease is not determined until after 
the bird's death. If such abnormal conditions are 
fre(|uently found, it is an indication that there is a 
])redis])osition in that direction in the strain of birds. 
The only way to correct this is to kill off the flock and 
obtain different blood. 

C.ANC, Kl'NlC OIJ" TIIIC OVAKV. 

This disease is quite common with all varieties of 
])Oultry. On examination of the ovary after death, 
the ova are found in different stages of develoi)ment, 
but instead of being yellowish -jjink in color, with the 
blood vessels well de(ined, they are brown or black, 
easily crushed and the contents broken down into a 



i)ir.i':Asi:s oi'^ poui/pky. 149 

puliid li(|ui(l. Death is caused partly by jjeritonitis 
ami ]):irtl>' hy the :il)Sorpti()n of the i)r()(ln(^ts c)f de- 
cotni)()siti()n. 

The cause of this trouhlc is not well uiulerstootl. 
It has heeii attributed to tin- birds beiuj^ too fat, thus 
coni])ressiii.u' the ovary and hinderiut^ the evolution of 
the ova. As it may occur in l)irds which are not fat, 
and as it is e\'idently acconi])anied !)>■ the penetration 
and ninlli])lieation of bacteria, it is i)ossibly an in- 
fectious disease. 

INI'I.AMMATION OI' TIIIv OV'IDI'CT. 

The oviduct, l)cin<:^ a hij^hly vascular tube, with 
^reat functional activity durinji-the layiuf^ season, and 
subject to injuries of various kinds, is friMpiently af- 
fected with inHamniation. 

Caus.xtion. — Congestion and inllanniiation may 
result from irritation due to too frecpient laying, from 
the eggs being too large, from too stinuilating food or 
condiments, from the breaking of an ii^^ within this 
tube after the shell has been formed u])on it, and 
from obstruction of the cloaca. 

SvMi'TOM.s. — The bird at first shows indications of 
a desire to lay without being able to produce eggs, or 
it may la}' eggs coutainiu'; more or less blood, or eggs 
without shells, or small and misshapen eggs contain- 
ing albumen but no yolk, or, linally, the yolk may be 
dropped without any covering of albumen (jr shell. 
As the inflammation increases there is high tempera- 
ture, straining, and an effort to rub the abdomen upon 
the ground. In the later stages, the bird becomes 
dull, indisjiosed to move, the comb is pale, the plum- 
age rough and the temperature falls to normal or be- 
low. 

Tki'.A'rMi'.NT. — This disease to be treated success- 



150 DISEASES OF POULTRY. 

fully must be taken in hand early. Give green and 
cooling food, avoid meat, condition powders, pepper 
or other irritating ingredients. Keep the bird quiet 
and administer Epsom salts 20 grains, bicarbonate of 
soda 2 grains. Follow this with one -half drop tinc- 
ture of aconite root three times a day. 

PROLAPSUS OR EVERSION OF THE OVIDUCT. 

Prolapsus of the oviduct is quite frequently observ- 
ed particularly in old hens whicn have been great lay- 
ers. Over-feeding, too stimulating food, constipation 
and straining to expel large eggs are direct causes. 
It may, also, occur as the result of inflammation of 
the oviduct, or from any condition which prevents 
the passage of the eggs. 

Symptoms. — Prolapsus often occurs from efforts to 
expel an egg which has become arrested in the lower 
part of the oviduct and is then first seen as the hen 
leaves the nest. It may be either complete at first, or 
only partial. In the latter case a tumor may be no- 
ticed as just visible within the cloaca. After a few hours 
or a day, the eversion continues and a large dark -red 
or violet -colored mass protrudes from the vent. In- 
flammation becomes intense in the part exposed to 
the air, gangrene may set in, and death occurs from 
purulent absorption or septicaemia. 

Treatment. — As soon as symptoms of prolapsus 
are seen, catch the bird and examine it carefully to 
determine if an egg has been arrested in the passage. 
If the swelling is soft, with no signs of the presence of 
an egg, apply carbolized oil or lard and return the part 
by gentle pressure. After this is accomplished, treat 
the bird as for inflammation of the oviduct, giving as 
additional treatment 3 to 5 drops fluid extract of ergot 
to cause contraction of the oviduct and keep it in posi- 



DISEASi:S OF POULTRY. 151 

tion. If an egg is found within the swelling treat as 
recommended for obstruction of the oviduct. In all 
cases of prolapsus, the oviduct if soiled with adhering 
manure or dirt should be washed clean with warm 
water before it is replaced. Keep the bird in a small 
coop where it will be quiet until it has recovered. 

DIFFICULT LAVING, KGG BOUND, OBSTRUCTION OF 
THE OVIDUCT. 

Laying may become difficult because of irritation of 
the lower part of the oviduct arresting the secretion of 
mucus and causing the mucous membrane to become 
dry and lacking in its normal lubrication. The same 
trouble results from birds being too fat or from the 
eggs being too large, and is aggravated by constipa- 
tion. If the cause is sufficiently pronounced in its ac- 
tion, the affected bird may be unable to expel the egg; 
this is arrested in the passage where it sets up infiamma - 
tion and leads to straining and possibly to prolapsus 
of the oviduct. 

Symptoms. — When fowls are egg bound they at 
first go frequently to the nest, making efforts to lay 
but are unable to accomplish this function. They are 
restless and evidently' in more or less distress. Later 
they become dull, with rough plumage and are indis- 
posed to move. On examining the bird by pressure 
of the finger about the vent, the egg can be distin- 
guished as a hard body in the posterior part of the 
abdominal cavity. In case of prolapsus, the everted 
oviduct may be easily seen. 

Treatment. — In the early stages when the irrita- 
tion is slight, it is sufficient to inject a small quantity 
of olive oil and gently manipulate the parts. After- 
wards, give cooling food, and, if hens are too fat, re- 
duce the ration. In case the expulsion of the egg can 



152 DISEASES OF POULTRY. 

not be obtained by the injection of oil, immerse the 
vent and lower part of the body in water, as warm as 
can be used without injury, and hold it there half an 
hour or more until the parts are relaxed. Then inject 
oil and endeavor to assist the bird by careful pressure 
and manipulation, or by dilation of the passage. Fluid 
extract of ergot is useful in these cases and may be 
given in five -drop doses three times a day. In some 
cases it is necessary to puncture the G^g, allow the 
contents to escape, crush the shell and remove it in 
pieces. 

GANGRENE OF THE OVIDUCT. 

If an egg which has been arrested in the oviduct 
can not be expelled, the inflammation which it pro- 
duces becomes more and more intense until it causes 
the death of the tissue. When the flesh dies it at once 
begins to decompose and putrify, and this condition is 
known as gangrene. The gangrenous walls of the 
oviduct are easily torn and the egg may then escape 
into the abdominal cavity. No treatment is of use in 
such a case as peritonitis and septic infection occur and 
lead to death in a comparatively short time. 

RUPTURE OF THE OVIDUCT. 

The walls of the oviduct are sometimes torn or rup- 
tured in the absence of inflammation or gangrene, and 
simply as the result of vigorous contractions in the 
efforts to expel an abnormally large egg. A fissure 
thus formed permits the escape of the egg into the ab- 
dominal cavity. This accident may be suspected by 
the suspension of laying and the enlargement of the 
abdomen. By pressure of the finger one or more eggs 
may be located in the lower part of the abdomen. As 
treatment is unavailing, the better plan is to destroy 
the bird as soon as the condition is recognized. 



DISEASES OF POULTRY. 153 

CLOACITIS, VHXT GLEET. 

Fowls are sometimes affected with a contagious 
catarrh of the cloaca, which is transmitted from bird to 
bird during the act of copulation. The inflammation 
is usuall}^ confined to the cloaca, but in severe cases 
may extend to the mucous membrane of the lower 
part of the oviduct, or even to that of the rectum. 

Symptoms. — The first symptom observed is the 
frequent passage of excrement which is voided in small 
quantities almost as rapidly as it reaches the cloaca. 
Often the bird endeavors to drop excrement when the 
cloaca is entirely empty. This action is due to the 
tenderness and irritability of the cloaca which gives to 
the bird the sensation of fullness, and produces spas- 
modic contractions. If an examination is made the 
mucous meml:)rane is found in the early stages to be 
red, dry, swollen and hot. In a day or two a discharge 
makes its appearance. It is, at first, thin and watery, 
but soon becomes white, purulent, and offensive. This 
discharge collects upon the skin and feathers about the 
vent, obstructs the passage and irritates the parts with 
which it comes in contact. The soiled skin becomes 
red and inflamed, it may be abraded by friction or by 
the bird picking at it, and thus sores or ulcers are 
started which may become quite troublesome. 

Treatment. — First reduce the inflammation and 
clean the parts by holding the lower part of the bird's 
body, including the vent, in a pan or bucket of warm 
water, in which has been dissolved a tablespoonful of 
bicarbonate of soda to each quart of water. The 
water should be as warm as can be comfortably borne 
by the hand and the application should be continued 
for one -half to three-quarters of an hour and should be 
repeated daily while the inflammation is at its height. 



154 DISEASES OF POULTRY. 

After the bird is removed from the water, it should be 
dried off with a cloth and a tablespoonful of the follow - 
ing mixture injected into the cloaca : Water 6 ounces, 
glycerine 2 ounces, morphia sulphate 1 grain, boric acid 
1 j^ drams. A pledget of cottoxi may be saturated with 
this mixture and placed in the cloaca two or three times 
a day, allowing it to remain until expelled by the bird. 
If the discharge is very offensive a solution of per- 
manganate of potash one grain to the ounce of water 
may be used as an injection, or, if more convenient, a 
solution of peroxide of hydrogen. Should the rem- 
edies just mentioned fail to give satisfactory results, 
try a solution of carbolic acid of the strength of one 
per cent. After the inflammation has subsided, if the 
discharge continues, an astringent solution may afford 
relief. For this purpose acetate of lead 4 grains to the 
ounce of water is suitable; or, in obstinate cases ace- 
tate of lead 3 grains, sulphate of zinc 3 grains, water 
one ounce. The sores and ulcers which form around 
the vent should be kept dusted with iodoform or 
aristol. 

ANOMALIES IN EGG PRODUCTION. 

Kggs are not always laid in a perfect condition. 
They may be deformed, modified in composition, or may 
contain foreign bodies. These changes depend upon 
che condition of the ovary and oviduct during the pe- 
riod the egg is developing. Some abnormal eggs have 
excited much wonder and discussion, but, if the man- 
ner in which the egg is formed is borne in mind there 
is little difficulty in making a satisfactory explana- 
tion. 

EGG INCUBATED IN THE OVIDUCT. 

It has been shown that the egg normally remains in 
the uterus or shell -forming portion of the oviduct from 
twelve to twenty hours, also, that it may become 



DISEASES OF POULTRY. 155 

Iclged at this point and be held there for an indefinite 
time. As the temperature of the bird's body is that 
most suitable for incubation and for the development 
of the embryo, it is plain that a fertile egg arrested in 
the oviduct must soon undergo important changes. 
For this reason some eggs have the odor and taste 
that are familiar in connection with stale eggs, al- 
though they are newly lain. In rare cases, the egg 
may be arrested a sufficient time to allow the embryo 
to become more or less developed. Megnin states that 
he removed an egg from a fowl, in making a posf- 
mortem examination, which contained an embryo upon 
which the skin and feathers were already formed. 
Fortunately for the reputation of the egg -producer, 
such cases seldom occur, and it is doubtful if the hen 
would succeed unaided in laying an egg which had 
been retained long enough to allow the embryo to 
develop. Some stale eggs may, however, be account- 
ed for by prolonged retention in the oviduct. 

PARASITES IN EGGS. 

As the egg traverses the greater part of the oviduct, 
and receives in that tube several layers of albumen be- 
fore the shell is formed, it is not difficult to under- 
stand how any parasites which gain entrance to the 
oviduct may be caught in the albumen and imprisoned 
within the shell. The lower part of the oviduct has a 
free opening into the cloaca for the passage of the egg, 
and it is not surprising that parasites occasionally find 
their way along this channel. The parasite most fre- 
quently found in the egg is the Cephalogonimus ovatus 
(Distoma ovatum) , a small fluke which has its habitat 
in the bursa of Fabricius. More rarely, the common 
round worm known as the Heterakis perspicilluni 
( Heterakis inflexa^ Ascaris inflexa) is observed. 
These two worms evidently pass into the oviduct from 



156 DISEASES OF POULTRY. 

the cloaca. Various fungi and bacteria are also found 
in eggs. Among these may be mentioned the chicken 
cholera bacillus, and probably the bacilli of fowl diph- 
theria and avian tuberculosis. These facts need not 
influence any one to avoid eggs as an article of diet, 
since all of these parasites are destroyed by a com- 
paratively low temperature and cooking would remove 
any danger that might possibly exist. The presence 
of certain micro-organisms in eggs leads to eaily de- 
composition. It is important, for the production of 
good eggs, that cleanliness and sanitary conditions be 
enforced in every poultry-yard. 

SANGUINEOUS EGGS. 

Occasionally small bloodclots are found in eggs, 
usually in the albumen. These result from a slight 
hemorrhage which has generally occurred in the upper 
two -thirds of the oviduct In rare cases the hemor- 
rhage may have taken place in the ovary and then the 
blood will be found either upon the surface of or within 
the yolk. Such hemorrhages are the result of great 
functional activity and congestion of the blood vessels 
of the reproductive organs. They are excited by any 
of the causes which lead to congestion and inflamma- 
tion and are to be counteracted by green feed, less ani- 
mal food, and suppression of condiments. In special 
cases medium doses of perchlorideof iron or ergot may 
be found useful. 

EGGS WITHOUT SHELLS. 

The production of eggs without shells , or the so -call - 
ed soft -shell eggs, maj' be due either to a lack of shell - 
making material or to inflammation of the shell -form- 
ing chamber of the oviduct which no longer secretes 
calcareous matter. It is, also, said that fright may 
cause the premature expulsion of an egg before the 



DISEASES OF POULTRY. 157 

shell has been deposited. Eggs without shells are 
more difficult to lay than are those which are perfect, 
and, hence, they are frequently retained a considerable 
time in the uterus, adding to the irritation and inflam- 
mation. As treatment in these cases, it is sufficient 
to remove the cause. Give the fowls plenty of shell - 
forming material such as wheat bran, crushed egg 
shells, cut or calcined bone, broken mortar, crushed 
oyster shells, etc. Give green food and avoid the 
causes of inflammation of the oviduct. 

EGGS WITH TWO YOLKS. 

Eggs are frequently found in which there are two 
yolks, and these are popularl}^ known as double - 
yolk eggs. They are the result of two ovarian cap- 
sules becoming ruptured at about the same time, and 
the yolks descending the oviduct so near together that 
both are included in the same shell. Eggs with two 
yolks are generally larger than others, and there is 
more danger that they will cause injur^^ to the oviduct. 
Some hens are habitual la^-ers of such eggs. If incu- 
bated, double -yolk eggs generall}^ produce twins, 
double chicks, or monsters. All such abnormalities 
are not developed from these eggs, however, as it has 
been shown by Davaine that a single yolk may contain 
two germs and give birth to two embryos united in 
some part of the body. 

INCOMPLETE OR ABORTED EGGS. 

It is common for hens to drop eggs of only half or a 
third the diameter of those usually produced. These 
diminutive productions, often about the size of a 
pigeon's egs;, are provided with a shell sometimes more 
dense than that of the normal egg. On examination 
they are found to contain albumen but no yolk. In 
some cases they contain little but the albumenous 



158 DISEASES OF POULTRY. 

membranes twisted so tighth' that they have been 
taken for worms. 

The production of these incomplete eggs is an evi - 
dence of irritation in the central portion of the oviduct. 
It shows that the albumen is secreted without the 
normal stimulous that is given by the presence of a 
yolk, and passing down the tube to the uterus is there 
covered with a shell. The hen laying such eggs 
should be removed from the flock, kept quiet and 
treated as recommended for inflammation of the ovi - 
duct. 

EGGS WITHIN EGGS. 

This anomah', which has been a matter of record 
for something like two hundred j'ears, is closely re- 
lated to the one just considered, and is of not unfre- 
quent occurrence. The inclosed egg is a small one, 
with a shell and contains only albumen. Its i^roduc- 
tion is easily explained. On account of irritation of 
the central portion of tlie oviduct, al1)umen is secreted 
without the presence of a yolk; this albumen is press- 
ed by the contractions of the tube downwards to the 
uterus where a shell is deposited upon it. In the ef- 
fort to expel this small egg irregular contractions are 
induced which force it upwards for a certain distance 
where it meets a yolk surrounded with albumen, or a 
second mass of albumen without a 3'olk, becomes im- 
bedded in this soft albumen and a membrane and shell 
are formed around the whole. The compound egg thus 
formed is usually of normal size. These abnormalities 
which have excited much wonder in persons ignorant 
of the physiology of egg production, are in reality very 
easily understood, and the experienced poultryman 
will draw the conclusion from their frequent repetition 
tha-his flock isbeingforced beyond the limit of safety. 



DISEASES OF POULTRY. 159 



CHAPTER VII. 



Diseases of the Brain. 



CEREBKAT, HYPEK^KMIA, CONGESTION OF THE BRAIN, VERTIGO- 
HEMORRHAGE OF THE BRAIN, APOPLEXY — EPILEPSY. 



CEREBRAL HYPEREMIA, CONGESTION OF THE BRAIN, 
VERTIGO. 

>^^ONGESTlON of the brain is a disease quite 
1 \ frequently seen with poultry. It may occur 
^^^ in fat and plethoric birds by fright or indiges- 
tion. It is frequently associated with irrita- 
tion of the intestines by parasitic worms. It is seen 
particularly in male birds during the breeding season 
and in chickens exposed to the liot rays of the sun. It 
may, also, occur as the result of blows upon the head 
and as a complication with infectious diseases such as 
cholera. 

The syviptoms are giddiness which leads the bird to 
throw its head upwards and backwards or to bend the 
neck to one side. The gait is staggering and uncer- 
tain, the bird walking backwards, sidewise or in a cir- 
cle. Sometimes irregular and unusual movements are 
made, or the bird falls to the ground fluttering and 
making convulsive movements with the legs, or may 
lie for some minutes powerless to move. In some 
cases there are epileptiform spasms which may often 
be stopped by a touch, in other cases there is great 
stupefaction and drowsiness. 



160 DISEASES OF POULTRY. 

As treatment apply cold water or ice to the head and 
hold it in position until the head is thoroughty cooled. 
Give internally 30 grains of Epsom salts, or one and 
one -half grains of calomel, or two teaspoonfuls of 
castor oil. Keep the affected bird in a quiet, cool, 
and shady place. If there is not entire recovery under 
this treatment, try bromide of potassium one to five 
grains three times a day dissolved in a tablespoonful 
of water. In case of intestinal parasites endeavor to 
dislodge these with appropriate remedies. 

HEMORRHAGE OF THE BRAIN, APOPLEXY. 

Apoplexy is the result of a rupture of one of the 
blood vessels of the brain and pressure from the 
escaped blood. Such accidents are attributed to 
stimulating food, to overfeeding and mechanical injur- 
ies, to violent exertion and to straining in laying eggs 
(hens being sometimes found dead on the nest from 
this cause). 

There are no premonitory symptoms in this disease. 
The bird is attacked suddenly, falls nearly or quite in- 
sensible, or dies upon the nest. 

In most cases, treatment is impossible as the bird 
dies before it can be admini.stered. In mild attacks the 
treatment should be the same as recommended for 
congestion of the brain. As preventive measures, 
regulate the rations and give plenty of exercise. 

EPILEPSY. 

Epilepsy is a disease characterized by convulsive 
attacks with loss of consciousness, which occur from 
time to time and are popularly known as fits. It is 
sometimes caused by pressure upon the brain (tumors ) , 
sometimes by intestinal parasites, and often no ap- 
parent cause can be discovered. 

When attacked the bird falls to the ground, the legs 



DISEASES OF POULTRY. 161 

and wings are moved convulsively, it may lie upon the 
back or abdomen, with the legs spread, the head 
thrown back, the bill and eyelids opening and closing 
alternately, and the eyeball turned backwards. After 
a time, the attack subsides and the bird resumes its 
usual appearance. 

Treatment is not very successful unless it is found 
that the trouble is due to intestinal worms. Other- 
wise, unless the bird is very valuable for show pur- 
poses, it is better that it should be destroyed when the 
symptoms of epilepsy are first observed. Some re- 
commend bromide of potash 3 to 5 grains two or three 
times a day. 




162 DISEASES OF POULTRY 



CHAPTER VIII. 



Diseases of the Heart and Blood Vessels. 



PERICARDITIS, INFLAMMATION OF THE PERICARDIUM, DROPSY 
OF THE HEART SAC — ENDOCARDITIS, INFL.\MMATION OF 
THE INTERNAL MEMBRANE OF THE HEART — HYPER- 
TROPHY OP THE HEART — RUPTURE OF THE HEART AND 
LARGE BLOOD VESSELS. 



pericarditis, inflammation OF THE PERICAR- 
DIUM, DROPSY OF THE HEART SAC. 

/^fca^HIS disease is quite common with poultry, and 
i \ is often found associated with inflammation 
^^i^ of the lining: membrane of the heart, with en- 
largement of the heart, with inflammation of 
the lungs and air sacs, and with soreness of the joints. 
Cadeac and Megnin are of the opinion on account of 
the coexistence of these different troubles that the peri- 
carditis of birds is often of a rheumatic nature. 

Symptoms. — There is great weakness, difficult 
breathing, the head being thrown backwards, and the 
breath drawn through the mouth in order to obtain 
sufficient air. If forced to run the bird soon falls. 
In a case observed by Hill there was tumultuous ac- 
tion of the heart and occasional spasms. 

Examination after death shows the pericardium or 
heart sac distended with a considerable quantity of 
liquid which has been thrown out as a consequence 
of the inflammation. There are, also, in many cases 



DISEASES OF POULTRY. 163 

thick false membranes adherent to both the heart and 
pericardium and sometimes uniting the two. 

Treatment. — The disease is usually not recogniz- 
ed in a bird until it is examined after death. If there 
are repeated cases in the same flock it is an indication 
of exposure to sudden changes of temperature, or to 
extreme cold and dampness, and these conditions 
should be removed. Give two to four grains of bi- 
carbonate of soda to each bird daily in the drinking 
water. 

ENDOCARDITIS, INFLAMMATION OF THE INTERNAL 
MEMBRANE OF THE HEART. 

The delicate membrane lining the interior of the 
auricles and ventricles is subject to inflammation as 
well as the pericardium, but much less frequently. 
The symptoms are not to be distinguished in fowls 
from those of pericarditis. On examination after 
death the internal surface of the heart is found redden- 
ed and deposits of coagulated lymph adhering to it. 
What has been said as to the cause and treatment of 
pericarditis in fowls applies equally to this disease. 

HYPERTROPHY OF THE HEART. 

Hypertrophy or enlargement of the heart has been 
sometimes seen in fowls and particularly in pigeons. 
It appears to be partly due to the great timidity of 
pigeons with which the least fright is sufficient to 
cause palpitations. 

Symptoms. — The symptoms of hypertrophy are 
violent beating of the heart which is sometimes so 
extreme as to cause rupture of blood vessels and the 
escape of blood from several points on the body at the 
same time. Hypertrophy affects most frequently the 
walls and valves of the right side of the heart 
(Cadeac). 



164 DISEASES OF POULTRY. 

RUPTURE CF THE HEART AND LARGE BLOOD VES- 
SELS. 

Rupture of the heart or large vessels accompanied 
by fatal hemorrhage appears to be quite common with 
birds. The cause is over exertion in trying to escape 
when being chased, or it may be due to compression 
of small birds in the hands, or to other injuries. It 
is most common in full blooded or plethoric individuals . 
Cadeac has noted its occurrence twice with birds af- 
fected with diphtheria. This accident results in 
speedy death, and can neither be foreseen nor treated. 
Megnin recommends that parrots, on account of being 
predisposed to this trouble, should constantly be given, 
for drink, water which has been made alkaline with 
bicarbonate of soda. 






A« 



DISEASES OF POULTRY. 165 



CHAPTER IX. 



Parasites and Diseases of the Skin. 



THE EPIZOA OR PARASITES I.IVING UPON THE EXTERNA!, SUR- 
FACE OF THE BODY — SCABIES OR MANGE OF THE BODY — 
SCABIES CAUSED BY EPIDERMOPTES^SCABIES CAUSED BY 
SARCOPTES, DEPLUMING SCABIES — FAVUS — CHICKEN POX, 
SORE HEAD, PIGEON POX. 



©' 



THE EPIZOA OR PARASITES LIVING UPON THE EX- 
TERNAL SURFACE OP THE BODY. 

UR domesticated birds are liable to be infested 
with a considerable number of species of ex- 
ternal parasites. These parasites living upon 
the surface of the body are grouped as epizoa. 
Space will not permit a detailed description of the 
various species, but the following list gives the scien- 
tific name, the popular name, when possible, and the 
kind of bird infested : 

Group i. epizoa which suck bi.ood or gnaw the fi^esh. 
Pule X avium. The bird flea. Fowls, pig-eons, and manj- 
other birds. 

Acanthia columbaria. Dove-cote bug-. Fowls and pig-eons. 

Dermestes lardarius \ -r .,^„,„ i 
Tenebrio molitor \ ^j ,. Youn^ pi-eons. 

Necrophorus \ Various | Coleoptera i 
Silpha i species. | 

Argas reflexus. Pigeon tick. Pig-eons. 
Leptus autumnalis. Harvest bug-. Fowls. 
Dermanyssus gallitur. Red mite. Poultry, pigeons, and 
house birds. 



166 DISEASES OF POULTRY. 

Group n. epizoa which cause scabies or mange. 
Epidermoptes bifurcatus. Fowls. 
Epidemioptes bilobatus. Fowls. 
Sarcoptes la-vis, var. gallince. Scab mite. Fowls. 
Sarcoptes Iczvis, var. colunibcz". Scab mite. Pig-eons. 
Sarcoptes niutans. Iveg scabies mite. Fowls, Guinea 
fowls, turkeys, and cage birds. 

Group hi. epizoa which live in the connective tissue 
or air sacs. 

Cytodites nudus. Air sac mite. Fowls. 

Harpirhynchus nidulans. Connective tissue mite. Pigeons. 

Lantinosioptes cysticola. Connective tissue mite. Fowls. 

Falciger rostratus. Pigeons. 
Group iv. epizoa which live upon or within the 
feathers, or upon the skin, some being inof- 
fensive while others injure the 
plumage or cause itching. 

Goniodes dissimilis. Ivouse. Fowls. 

Goniodes stylifer. Ivouse. Guinea fowls and turkej's. 

Goniodes falcicornis Louse. Peacocks. 

Goniodes viinor. Louse. Pigeons. 

Goniodes niunidiantis. Louse. Guinea fowls. 

Goniodes parviceps. Louse. Peacocks. 

Goniocotes gigas. Louse. Fowls. 

Goniocotes hologaster. Louse. Fowls. 

Goniocotes rectangulatus. Louse. Guinea fowls and 
peacocks. 

Lipeurus anatis. Louse. Ducks. 

Lipeurus anscris. Louse. Geese. 

Lipeurus caponis. Louse. Fowls and Guinea fowls. 

Lipe lines coluuibce. Louse. Pigeons. 

Lipeurus crassicornis. Louse. Geese. 

Lipeurus heterographus. Louse. Fowls. 

Lipeurus numidce. Louse. Guinea fowls. 

Lipeurus meleagridis. Louse. Turkeys. 

Menopon biseriatum. Louse. Fowls and Turkeys. 

Menopon latum. Louse. Pigeons. 

Menopon numidcB. Louse. Guinea fowls. 

Menopon pallidum. Louse. Fowls. 



DISEASl-S OF POULTRY. 167 

MenopoH phtzosiojHutn. Louse. Peacocks. 
Docophorus icterodes. Louse. Ducks and g^eese. 
Trinoton anseris. Louse. Geese. 
Trinoton confitiumn. Louse. Geese. 
Trinoton luridtiin. Louse. Ducks. 
Trinoton lituratiini. Louse. Geese. 
Colpoccplialuui turbijiatu}]i. Louse. Pig'eons. 
CheylcticUa lictcropalpa. Mite. Pigeons. 
Syringophilus bipectinatus. Mite. Fowls, Guinea fowls 
and pig-eons. 

Syringophilus uncinatus. Mite. Peacocks. 

Dermcglyphus elongatiis. Mite. Fowls and Guinea fo'.vls. 

Dcrmoglyphus minor. Mite. Fowls and Guinea fowls. 

Dcrinoglyphus varians. Mite. Guinea fowls. 

Frcyana anatina. Mite. Ducks. 

Frcyana chanayi. Mite. Turkeys. 

Megninia astcrnalis. Mite. Fowls and Pig-eons. 

Megninia cubitalis. Mite. Fowls. 

Megninia ginglymura. Mite. Turkeys. 

Megninia velata. Mite. Ducks. 

Ptcrolichus obtii%es. Mite. Fowls. 

Pterolichiis uncinatus. Mite. Turkeys. 

Pterophagus strictns. Mite. Pigeons. 

General Considerations. — We hare grouped 
together, as epizoa which suck blood or gnaw the 
flesh, a number of parasites which produce somewhat 
similar effects, although, zoologically speaking, these 
pests differ very widely. They resemble each other 
in that they do not remain constantly upon the birds, 
most of the varieties hiding about the roosts or houses 
during the day, and coming out of their concealment 
to make their attacks by night. They puncture the 
skin, and suck blood for their nourishment. The 
coleopterous larvae gnaw the skin, and even the super- 
ficial muscles of the neck and abdomen of young pig- 
eons, producing serious wounds and often causing 
death. 



168 DISEASES OF POULTRY. 

The bird flea is most commonly found tormenting 
pigeons and more rarely attacks fowls. The dove- 
cote bug closely resembles the ordinary bedbug, and 
is thought by some to be identical with it. When 
the pigeon and poultry -houses become infested with 
this insect, it multiplies rapidly and is extremely 
pernicious in its effects. The tick also lives in the 
pigeon -cotes, and hides during the day in the cracks 
and holes, coming out at night to attack the birds. 
Young pigeons are the preferred victims, and so much 
blood is taken from them that they die of exhaustion 
in from ten to fifteen days. The older birds are 
driven from their nests when sitting, and altogether 
it may be said that pigeon raising becomes difficult or 
impossible while these pests are allowed to remain. 
They are found most frequently on the neck or be- 
neath the breast, but may fasten themselves to the 
skin of any part of the body. The mature females 
are about one -fourth inch in length. These parasites 
may wander a considerable distance, and are some- 
times found in adjacent fowl -houses, and even in 
dwelling-houses. They are said not to trouble fowls, 
but as they sometimes bite children or even grown 
people causing painful swellings, it would not be 
surprising if it were found that they occasionally 
also attack poultry. 

This tick liv^es a long time without food of any 
kind, and it may subsist for generations on dead 
organic matter. It is, therefore, a troublesome pest 
to exterminate when it is once established on any 
premises. 

The harvest bug is a minute red insect about one- 
sixtieth of an inch long, which is common in some 
sections in the Summer and Fall. It preferably at- 



DISEASES OF POULTRY. 169 

tacks small animals, but often swarms upon man if 
its habitat is invaded. It punctures and even pene- 
trates the skin, causing small swellings and almost 
insupportable itching. Fowls are sometimes at- 
tacked, the effects being most serious with chickens 
hatched late in Summer or in the Autumn. The 
parasites fix themselves to the skin at the base of the 
feathers producing such intense irritation as to in- 
duce epileptiform symptoms leading to death in a few 
days. The mortality from this cause is sometimes 
considerable. 

The red mite, or dcrmanyssus gallhur, is the most 
common and most perniciously active of all the para- 
sites which attack birds. It is from 1 -35 to 1 -40 inch 
in length, 3'ellowish, white, or dark red in color ac- 
cording as it is fasting or is more or less filled with 
blood. This parasite hides by day in the crevices and 
corners of the buildings, nests, perches, floors, etc., 
where it may be found in great clusters, and at night 
the individuals composing these clusters scatter them- 
selves over the birds, and by pricking the skin fill 
themselves with blood. They are injurious not only 
on account of the blood which is abstracted, but be- 
cause of the itching, pain, and loss of rest which is a 
necessary consequence of their activity. 

Young pigeons, chickens, and cage birds are the 
greatest sufferers; their skin becomes pale and blood- 
less, they lose their usual vigor and alertness, become 
emaciated, and may finally die from exhaustion. The 
red mite is not usually found upon the fowls when 
they are examined during the day, for its natural 
tendency is to confine its foraging to the night, but 
when it is allowed to multiply until very abundant 
the fowls are infested both day and night, and it be- 



170 DISEASES OF POULTRY. 

-comes, apparently at least, a permanent parasite. 
According to Zurn, these mites sometimes enter the 
nasal cavities of yonng pigeons and chickens and set 
up a catarrhal inflammation, and they have also been 
found in the external opening of the ear. 

The red mite may get upon people and cause con - 
siderable itching and some irritation of the skin ; 
and it may, also, attack horses and other animals 
stabled near the poultry -roosts. It causes horses to 
rub and bite themselves, the hair over the affected 
places is lost, and there is an eruption similar to that 
which occurs in the common mange. 

The epizoa of our second group are all mites. The 
Epidernioptcs cause a form of scabies characterized by 
the production of drj^ grayish -yellow crusts or scales. 
The disease is seen on anj^ part of the body, but only 
rarely about the head. 

The Sarcoptes Icevis produces the true scabies of 
fowls and pigeons. The skin is not much affected but 
the feathers break and are shed from the affected sur- 
faces. This disease and tne scabies of the legs will 
be treated with all necessary detail at the end of the 
general article on the epizoa. 

The animal parasites, which live in the connective 
tissue and air sacs might, perhaps, be more properly 
placed among the entozoa. They are all mites, and 
some of them pass a portion of their existence upon 
the surface of the body. It is most convenient, there- 
fore, to consider them in connection with the other 
mites. The Cytodites nudiis lives in the air sacs and 
connective tissue of fowls and pheasants. They are 
found in the trachea, bronchi, lungs, and the various 
air sacs including those of the bones. They have also 
been reported as found in the thoracic and peritoneal 



DISEASES OF POULTRY. 171 

cavities. Some authors state that they have observed 
them in 3'ellow, miliary tubercles of the body cavities, 
lungs, liver, and kidnej'S. lyarge numbers of the 
Cytodites may exist in the air sacs without their pres- 
ence being suspected during the life of the bird. 
When they are very numerous in the bronchi they 
cause irritation of the mucous membrane, catarrh and 
coughing. Megnin states that they may cause death 
by congestion and obstruction of the bronchial tubes. 
Gerlach and Zundel believe that the Cytodites may 
cause enteritis and peritonitis. In small numbers 
these mites are not very injurious, but when birds are 
badly infested thej^ become anaemic, lose flesh, stop 
laying eggs, show catarrhal symptoms, droop and die. 

The Harpirhynchus nidiilans lives in tumors of the 
skin on pigeons and sparrows. When present in small 
numbers only it is nearly harmless, and, at most, 
causes slight local irritation and disturbance to the 
growth of the feathers. If very numerous, there is 
impaired nutrition, loss of flesh, and frequently a 
fatal ending. 

The Laminosioptcs cysticola lives in the connective 
tissue of the Galliuaceo' where it may cause irritation 
and the formation of tubercles, in the center of which 
are found the mites. They often exist without affect- 
ing the health of the birds, but when in large numbers 
there are the usual symptoms produced by theepizoa, 
/. e.y bloodlessness, weakness, loss of flesh, and, 
finall5% death. 

The Falcigcr rostratus of the pigeon, which is really 
one of the feather mites, is able to introduce itself 
into the connective tissue beneath the skin, which it 
enters by way of the feather follicles, and there 
spends a portion of its life. Robertson examined a 



172 DISEASES OF POULTRY. 

considerable number of both wild and tame pigeons 
and rarely found the connective tissue free from this 
parasite. He found it chiefly in the subcutaneous 
connective tissue around the large veins of the neck, 
and on the surface of the pericardium. No disturb- 
ance of the health has been observed to result from 
the presence of this parasite. 

Passing now to the fourth group of epizoa, those 
which live upon, or within, or among the feathers, but 
do not bite or puncture the skin, we find included an 
extensive list of lice and mites. The lice of birds be- 
long exclusively to the pennivorous varieties, that is, 
they subsist upon the feathers, and perhaps also upon 
the epidermic scales, but they do not suck blood. It 
is a curious fact that the blood -sucking lice all live 
upon the mammalia. The lice of birds vary greatly 
in size, the largest varieties being one -sixth of an 
inch long, and the smallest not more than one -thir- 
tieth of an inch in length. 

Young chickens hatched under hens nearly always 
have lice upon them. These are found upon the head 
and under the throat, where they have fixed them- 
selves to the feathers near to the skin, and may be 
mistaken for pin -feathers upon superficial examina- 
tion. When badly infested, the parasites may also be 
seen under the wings and about the vent. A number 
of different kinds of lice may be found at one time on 
the same bird, and, it may also be added, each species 
of birds has its own species of lice. The lice are 
more or less injurious to the plumage of infested 
birds, they cause itching by roaming over the skin, 
and they prevent the birds from obtaining their 
proper rest. 

The mites of the fourth group cause little or no in- 



DISEASES OF POULTRY. ]73 

convenience to the birds which they infest. Some 
live between the barbules of the feathers, others live 
within the quills, and these are sometimes called 
feather mites. The Chcyletus lives at the base of the 
feathers. The Syringophilus lives within the quills 
of the tail, the wing, and the wing-coverts. The 
quills of the affected feathers lose their transparency 
and are filled with an opaque powder, which, upon 
microscopical examination, is found to consist of the 
parasites, their excreta, the skins which they have 
shed and the debris of the interior of the quill. It is 
supposed that this alteration of the feather has no 
effect upon the health of the bird. The Derrnoglyphus 
and Pterolichus also live within the quills. 

Symptoms. — Small chickens do not thrive, and if 
badly infested they droop and die. The larger chick- 
ens and grown birds, when severely tormented by ex- 
ternal parasites, lose flesh, the skin and comb become 
pale and bloodless ; the birds are scratching, picking 
and dusting themselves continually. Unable to rest 
either day or night, and losing comparatively large 
quantities of blood, the birds rapidly become emaci- 
ated, sitting hens forsake their nests, the feathers be- 
come broken and drop out, and the skin becomes 
abraded and sore. The fowls no longer thrive, 0^%^ 
production is greatly diminished or arrested, and oc- 
casionally a bird is found dead. 

By opening the feathers carefully about the head, 
neck, under the wings, or about the vent of the fowls, 
lice may be seen moving about. Persons going about 
the roosting -places are covered with the vermin, and 
an examination of the roosts and crevices of the 
building near the roosts will reveal large clusters of 



174 DISHASES OF POULTRY. 

the red mites, some of which are light yellow in color, 
but the most are dark red and gorged with blood. 

The existence of such pests as the bird flea and 
the dove-cote bug can only be determined by careful 
examination of the poultry -houses and pigeon -cotes. 
The coleoptera larvae should be suspected in case sores 
are found upon the breast and neck of young pigeons. 
When pigeons are troubled with ticks, these parasites 
are often found attached to the skin on some part of 
the bird's body. 

When the skin is irritated, inflamed, and covered 
with scurf, scales and crusts, with loss of feathers, or 
if the feathers are shed when the birds are not nor- 
mally molting, an examination should be made for 
the mites which cause scabies. If the legs become 
enlarged, roughened, and scaly the effects of the 
Sarcoptrs inutans are indicated. The discovery of 
small nodules in the skin or of miliary tubercles on 
the serous membranes, in the connective tissue, lungs, 
or other organs, should be followed by an examina- 
tion with a hand lens to determine if these are due to 
the air -sac or connective -tissue mites. 

Diagnosis. — It may be said that the diagnosis or 
determination of such disorders is easily made and 
unmistakable, if a careful search is made for the para- 
sites. In one sense this is true, but birds are often 
unthrifty, leave their nests, or even die from the ef- 
fects of lice or mites without the true cause being 
suspected. People either neglect to look for the para- 
sites, and attribute their trouble to cholera; or if they 
observe a few lice they conclude that these are nor- 
mally present with birds and give them no further 
thought. It is only after a careful examination of the 
roosting places by taking down the roosts and remov- 



DISEASES OF POULTRY. 



175 




Fig. 38. — Meiiopon biscriaium. 
(Fowls.) 



ing' loose boards and thus uncovering the parasites 
that the extent of the plague can be appreciated. It 
should be remembered at all 
times that the external animal 
parasites are the most common 
and frequent cause of trou- 
ble in the poultry -yard and 
pigeon -cote. If the birds are 
not thriving and conducting 
themselves satisfactorily, look 
for these pests, take measures 
to repress them, and in most 
cases the results will be sur- 
prising and gratifying. When 
anything is the matter with a 
horse the maxim is examine his 
feet, and when anything is 
found wrong with poultry or other domesticated 
birds, the maxim should be look for lice. 

Causation.— The louse -^.^ 

plague is the result of con- 
tagion. The parasites are 
introduced upon birds, and 
they multiply and increase to 
a remarkable extent when 
the conditions are favorable. 
It has been estimated that 
the second generation from a 
single louse may number 
twenty -five hundred indi- 
viduals, and the third gen- 
eration may reach the enor- 
mous number of one hundred and twenty -five thou- 
sand ; and all of these may be produced in the course 




Fig. 39. — Menopon latum. 
(Pigeons.) 



176 



DISEASES OF POULTRY. 



of eight weeks. It is not surprising, therefore, that, 
although birds have so few parasites upon them when 
well cared for that these insects can not be discovered, 
a few weeks of neglect and unfavorable surroundings 
may bring an entire change and reveal them covered 
with vermin, exhausted and emaciated. 

It is not many years since there was a general belief 
in the spontaneous generation of lice from accumula- 
tions of dirt and filth, and a remnant of this belief 
still lingers in many minds. We may now safely 
banish any tendency to this antiquated theory which 
we may have inherited or ac- 
quired through the influence of 
tradition. The theorj^ of spon- 
taneous generation was first ex- 
ploded as applied to crocodiles 
and reptiles of the tropical 
swamps and rivers; still later it 
was shown to be untrue with re- 
gard to lice and other insects, and 
finally it was disproved in rela- 
tion to the very smallest organ- 
isms that are revealed by the 
highest powers of the microscope. 
Toda}' it is admitted by all scientists that every living 
thing is descended from a living parent of the same 
nature. 

The different species of lice and mites are as easily 
distinguished from each other by experts as are the 
different species of birds. Their peculiarities are in- 
herited from generation to generation, and they con- 
tinue to live upon the same species of birds. The 
hens, the turkeys, the pigeons, the ducks, the geese, 
and the Guinea fowls each have their peculiar species 




''d )) 



Fig. 40. — Lipeunts columba 
(Pig-eons.) 



DISl-ASl-S Ob- POULTRY. 



177 



of lice which live upon them alone, and there are but 
comparatively few kinds of lice which live upon two 
or more species of birds. We may, consequently, 
favor the multiplication of lice by making the con- 
ditions favorable for them, but we can not produce lice 
where none exist. 

The conditions which favor the multiplication of 
lice and other external parasites are found partly in 
the birds and partly in the surroundings. Unhealthy 
or unthrifty birds, or those which 
from any cause lack strength and 
vigor are most subject to the at- 
tacks of such parasites, and may 
be found literally covered with 
them when other members of the 
flock are comparatively free from 
their attacks. For similar rea- 
sons some varieties of birds are 
much more likely to be infested 
with vermin under the same con- 
ditions than are others. There 
are birds so strong, healthy and 
vigorous that lice can not thrive upon them. Exer- 
cise, proper feeding, pure air, all have a tendency to 
keep the birds in a condition unfavorable to the ex- 
istence of the parasites. On the other hand accumu- 
lations of manure and filth, close confinement of the 
birds, lack of dusting places, buildings with crevices 
in which the insects may hide, and damp, dark and 
badly ventilated houses are conditions which favor the 
parasites and lead to their rapid development. 

The poultry -yard may be kept practically free from 
these insect pests, but there is always a liability of 
their introduction wMth purchased fowls or with birds 




Fig-. 41. 



- Coi/toiffs cfissim:'//.--. 

(Fowls.) 



178 



DISEASES OF POULTRY. 



that have become infested at shows and other ]:)laces. 
Contagion must, therefore, be accepted as the cause of 
this plague, and it should be guarded against on the 
same principles as are the infective elements of other 
communicable diseases. 

Treatment. — Young chickens hatched under hens 
almost invariabl}^ have lice upon them and should be 
treated as soon as removed from the nests. An eflfica- 
cious and safe remedy in this case is pure lard. It 
should be carefull}^ rubbed into the feathers upon the 
top of the head and under the throat. I^ard obstructs 
the breathing pores of the lice and soon kills them. 
Nothing should be mixed with the 
lard to increase its activity as such 
young l)irds are very sensitive to the 
action of irritants and are seriously 
injured by them. Some recommend 
mixing powdered sulphur with the lard 
for this purpose; but it should on no 
account be used on small chickens as 
it causes inflammation of the eyes and 
arrests the growth. Pure lard is 
harmless and wall kill the lice, con- 
sequently it can be used with full 
confidence. A small quantit3' may also be rubbed 
under the wings, but this is not usually considered 
necessary until the chicks are a week or two old. 

Chickens hatched in the incubator should be free 
from lice, and will be unless the incubator has in some 
way become infested. It is well to examine even in- 
cubator chicks occasionally for lice as the incubator or 
brooder may have these insects introduced into them 
in various w^ays and then become favorable places for 
the growth of the parasites as well as for the develop - 




^ig■.42.— 

Lipiiirii'' ctipoiiix 

(Fowls.) 



diseasp:s of poultry. 



179 



meat of the birds. The older birds, but not the hens 
with young- chickens, may be anointed about the 
heads, under the wings, and around the vent with an 
ointment made by thoroughly mixing a teaspoonful of 
flowers of sulphur with an ounce of lard. Some use 
instead of this ointment or in combination with it in- 
secticide powder, which is blown or dusted into the 
feathers. This operation is best performed by holding 
the bird by the legs, head downwards, so that the 
tendency of the feathers will be to fall away from the 
body. Then apply the powder thoroughly with a 
dredging box or a powder bellows. 
If the bird is held over a large 
piece of paper the powder which 
fails to adhere to the feathers and 
skin can be saved and used a 
second time. The powders most 
generalh' used for this purpose are 
pyrethrum, stavesacre seeds, and 
flowers of sulphur. It is con- 
sidered a good plan to moisten the 
roots of the feathers with soapy 
water in order to make the pyreth- 
rum or stavesacre powder adhere. Some poultrymen 
dip their fowls in a solution containing one per cent 
carbolic acid. This solution is made by mixing l/i 
ounces of pure carbolic acid with 1 gallon of 
hot water. I^arger quantities may be made in 
the same proportion. The solution is allowed to 
cool and is then put in a vessel suitable for immersing 
the bird to be treated. The fowls should be held in 
this liquid for about a minute and care should betaken 
to wet every portion of the body and head. Creolin 
will probably prove more satisfactory for this treat - 




Fig-. 43.— 

IMenopon pallidum. 

(Fowls. J 



180 



DISEASES OF POULTRY 




FifT. 44.- 
Goniocotix 

(Fowls.) 



ment than carbolic acid, as it is equally eflficacious in 
killing insects, but is less poisonous to birds and the 
odor is less objectionable to the operator. It is used 
in the strength of 2/2 ounces mixed with a gallon of 
water. 

Tie treatment of the birds with some of the sub- 
stances mentioned, although it is in- 
dispensable for the control of the para- 
sites, is not alone suflficient. The build- 
ings must receive prompt attention and 
tliorough treatment. The droppings 
\ should be carefully removed and mixed 
with fine, dry road dust, ashes or lime. 
Fine dust is destructive to the lice and 
hence should be plentifully used about 
the buildings, and given to the fowls in 
boxes so large that they can thoroughly 
dust themselves in it. Pj-rethrum and sulphur may 
be mixed with the dust in such boxes and render it 
more deadly to the insects. 

The floor of the poultry -house or pigeon -cote 
should be thoroughly scraped, and covered with fresh 
sand or road dust. The roosts and all loose pieces of 
wood should be removed and then the whole inside 
and also the parts which have been removed should 
be well wetted by spraying with a solution made by 
dissolving 6 ounces of crude carbolic acid to the gallon 
of water. This should be mixed with the water at 
nearly the boiling point as carbolic acid does not 
readily mix with cold water. At least once a year the 
inside woodwork and walls should be given a good 
coat of lime -wash to Avhich 4 ounces of crude carbolic 
acid for each gallon has been added. The nests should 
also be cleaned out, drenched with boiling water or 



DISEASES OF POULTRY. 



181 



carbolic solution, and when dry sprinkled with in- 
secticide powder and bedded with fresh straw. The 
carbolic preparations should always be used in the 
morning and the buildings thoroughl}^ ventilated dur- 
ing the daj' so that the odor will not be so strong as 
to be injurious to the birds at night. 

The treatment recommended above, if thoroughly 
carried out, is sufficient to keep the troublesome ex- 
ternal parasites either eradicated or under such con- 
trol that they will not prove injurious. For con- 
venience various other methods have been devised 
which are more or less effectual. Some throw dry 
lime dust against the roof and walls of the buildings; 
others fumigate by burning sulphur and leaving the 
doors and windows closed for a few hours, there 
being, of course, no birds 
left inside at the time; still 
others fumigate by placing 
open bottles of bisulphide 
of carbon about the poul- 
try -house. Aniseed is dis - 
tasteful to most of the 
vermin of birds, and is an 
excellent remedy when 
powdered and dusted into 
the feathers, or when 
strewn into the nest boxes. 
A small quantity of the 
essential oil mixed with 
hot water renders this more effectual in destrojnng the 
mites about the roosts, nests and other woodwork. 
The essential oil may also be mixed with olive oil and 
rubbed upon those parts of the birds most frequented 
by lice ; and in case of catarrh caused b}^ the red mite 




FifT. 45. — Dcrinaiiyssiis galliiue. 

(Red mite.) Magriified 75 (tiameters. 

Upper surface. 



182 



DISEASES OF POULTRY. 




this mixture may be introduced into the nasal pas- 
sages with a small feather. 

In case the larvae of the Coleopiera attack the young 
pigeons, the houses should be cleaned as thoroughly 
as possible, in the manner which has been specified, 

and the nests and floor 
should be strewn with a 
mixture of equal parts of 
pine sawdust and sand. 

When the Argas or pigeon 
tick is introduced upon a 
premises it must be de- 
stro3'ed by every possible 
means. The ticks should be 
carefully picked from the 
birds so that the head (ros- 
trum) will not be left in the 
wound. They should then 
The infested pigeon -cotes 
should be thoroughly cleaned, scalded and white- 
washed. Insecticide powder should be freely used 
upon the birds and nests. 

The harvest bug may be destroyed and kept away 
from fowls if creolin, carbolic or sulphur ointment is 
freely used upon the birds. 

The Epidermoptes are combated with creolin dips, 
and sulphur ointment. 

The mites which live in the air sacs and connective 
tissue can not be reached by any kind of medication. 
They can only be eradicated from the flock by con- 
stant attention to all the details necessary to ensure 
cleanliness, by killing affected birds and by burning 
their carcasses. 



Fig. 46. — DcrmaiiYssus galliiiie. 
(Red mite.) Mag-nified 75 

diameters. Under surface. 

be crushed or burned. 



DISEASES OF POULTRY. 



183 



SCABIES OR MANGE OF THE BODV. 

Two varieties of scabies have been described as af- 
fecting the bodies of the domesticated birds. One 
form has been attributed to mites of the genus Epider- 
mop/cs and the other is known to be caused by the 
Sarcoptcs. These varieties being quite distinct will be 
described separately. 

SCABIES CAUSED BY EPIDERMOPTES. 

The two species named Epidermoptcs bilobatus and 
Epidermoptes bifurcatus have been observed by a num- 
ber of authors, and their presence is generally coinci- 
dent with a mange -like disease of the skin, although 
they have also been discovered upon 
fowls apparently free from this disease. 
There is, consequentl3^ some doubt as 
to whether these mites produce scabies, 
or whether they are inoffensive. The 
preponderance of evidence at present 
indicates, however, that they are the 
cause of the disease which has been 
attributed to them. 

The Epidermoptcs are very small aca - 
rina, or mites which generally live in 
the soft plumage or down at the surface 
of the skin. Usually they are not Deymanyssus 

. . 1 • • eallince. 

numerous but under certain conditions (Red mite). Etrtr 
they multiply enormously. The skin Ma?nifi"cf Ts'dil 
of various parts of the body or over ^"''"te''*- 
the entire body, with the exception of the head, be- 
coaies irritated, scurfy, and covered with large, thin, 
yellowish or grayish scales or crusts which accumu- 
late particularly at the base of the feathers. In rare 
instances the head may be affected ; but it is generally 
the neck, breast, the region under the wings, 




Fier. 47 



184 



DISEASES OF POULTRY. 



and the wings themselves, that are found diseased. 
The appearance of the affected parts resembles 
closely that seen in favus — the disease caused by the 
\egetable parasite known as the Aclwn'ofi Schonlcinii. 
Some have, therefore, suspected that the disease is 
really due to this fungus and that the mites are inno- 
cent of pathogenic action. The truth must be de- 
termined by future investigations. 

SCABIES CAUSED BY SARCOPTES — DEPLUMING SCABIES. 

This form of scabies was first observed by Railliet 
and Cadiot, in 1885, on a Homing Pigeon from Brus- 
sels. It was lat^er found by 
Railliet to be a frequent af- 
fection of fowls. It is 
caused by the mite known 
as the Sarcoptcs hrvis. The 
parasite found on the pig- 
eon is not exactly the same 
as that found upon fowls 
although both belong to the 
same species. The variety 
which lives upon the pigeon 
is distinguished by the term 
cohimbcs, and that which 
lives upon fowls b}^ the 

of the fowl;' male, "seen on t'le fp^m (rnllh),p Tlic> rUcpqcp 
ventral surface; magnified 150 Leilll ^a/////^/-. J. 11 v. Clisease 

diameters. jg most commou iu Spring 

and Summer, disappearing in the Fall when the birds 
molt, and is seen again towards Spring. 

The principal sj^mptom of this trouble is a loss of 
feathers from spots of various sizes, situated on differ- 
ent parts of the body. The feathers break off at the 
surface of the skin, and at the root of the feather is 
seen a small mass of epidermic scales which is easily 




i.'i.—Epidtrmoptis hiUthntus 



DISKASHS OF POULTRY 



185 



crushed into powder. A microscopic examination of 
this powder reveals numerous mites and the debris 
which they produce. 

The disease appears in poultry -yards as a conse- 
quence of the introduction of one or more birds al- 
ready affected. It is 
readily c o m m u n i - 
cated , develops rapid - 
ly and in a few days a 
whole flock is con- 
taminated. It usually 
begins on the rump, 
the transfer of con- 
tagion being effected 
by copulation, and 
spreads rapidly to the 
back, the thighs and 
the belly. An infest- 
ed cock will rapidly 
infect all the fowls in 

a poultry -3'ard. Often Fig. AfK—EpiJ.rinopti's bilobains of the 
fowl; female, seen on the ventral surface; 
the head and the up- mag-nlfied ISO diameters. 

per surface of the neck are affected early in the 
course of the disease. The feathers fall off at all 
these points, and finally the skin is denuded over a 
large extent of surface. The large feathers of the 
tail and wings and the wing-coverts are generally 
retained. 

The denuded skin presents a normal appearance — 
it is smooth, soft, of a pinkish color and not percepti- 
bly thickened. By pulling out the feathers which 
remain near the invaded parts, it is easy to find, with 
both fowls and pigeons, a mass of epidermic scales at 




186 



DISEASES OF POULTRY. 



the end of the quill which contains a number of the 
parasites. 

The general health of the birds is apparently not 
disturbed. They remain in good flesh, and continue 
to lay as though the}^ were not affected. It seems 
probable that much of the irregular molting, feather 
pulling and feather eating are due to the irritation 
caused b3'' the Sarcoptes Icfvis. 

Treatment. — The treatment of scabies of the 

body is not 
very difficult 
but must be 
persisted i n 
until a cure is 
effected. Hel- 
merich's oint- 
ment is usually 
recommended. 
A modified 
form more 
suitable for 
use on the 
bodies of birds 
may be pre- 
pared by thor- 
oughly mix- 
ing the follow - 

Fig-. 50.— Sarro/t/i-.t Avt/x, var. galliiuv ; male, seen iug ingrC- 
on the ventral surface: raaernified 200 diameters. ,. . t>i 

dients : Flow- 
ers of sulphur, 1 dram, carbonate of potash, 20 grains, 
lard or vaseline, Yi ounce. This ointment should be 
rubbed over the affected portions of the skin and the 
adjacent parts. In place of this there may be substi- 
tuted creolin or carbolic ointment, made by mixing 




DISEASES OF POULTRY. 



187 



1 part of either of these substances with 10 parts by- 
weight of lard or vaseline. A very large surface of 
the body should not be covered with strong carbolic 
acid preparations on account of the danger of absorp- 
tion and poisoning. 

Convenient liquid preparations for the treatment of 
scabies are made by mixing Peruvian balsam 1 ounce, 
alcohol 3 ounces; or, 
glycerine 3 ounces, water 
1 ounce, carbolic acid 1 
dram ; or, glycerine 2 
ounces, alcohol }2 ounce, 
water J,4 ounce, creolin 
1 dram. The affected 
parts of the body may be 
rubbed with either one of 
these preparations every 
four or five days until a 
cure is effected. 

It is well to finish the 
treatment by dipping the 
birds in a two -per -cent Fig. si.— .s-^rco//*-.? Aj-?'/.?, var. gai- 

^ ItiHv; ovifrerous feraalf, seen on the 

creolin bath (2 ^/^ ounces <lorsal surlace; mag-nified 100 diam- 
eters. 

creolin to 1 gallon of 

water) and to whitewash the houses with carbolated 
whitewash. This will kill any mites which may be 
left in the feathers or about the roosts. 

FAVUS. 

This disease is popularly' known as " baldness " or 
"white comb." It is caused by a fungus named the 
Achorion Schonlcinii, which also attacks mankind, 
dogs, cats, rabbits and mice. When it affects people 
the disease is known as tinea favosa and /amis, the 
tendency being to accept the latter name. The para- 




188 



DISEASES OF POULTRY 



site was discovered in the disease of man by Remak 
in 1837 and more completely demonstrated by Sclion- 
lein in 1841. It was discovered as affecting cats by 
Jacquetant in 1847, and on mice by Bennett in 1850; 
while Gerlach, Muller and Leisering each published 
cases of it on poultry in 1858. Saint Cyr described 

the first case of 
favus on the dog 
in 1868 and in 
1869 he discov- 
ered it on the 
rabbit. 

S V MP TOMS. — 

Favus is a dis- 
ease of the skin 
which in birds 
generally com- 
mences upon the 
comb, or other 
fleshy parts of 
the head and 
gradually extends 
to and affects the 
skin of the body. 
In rare cases it 

Fijr. Sl.—Sarcoptes l<xv/s, var. gal/imr; larva, ■kprrin« nnnn fhp 
■en on the ventral surface; mag-aified 200 diam- uct,iu3 upuii tiic 

body before the 
head is affected. The disease manifests itself by 
small white or light gray, round or irregular spots, 
from the size of a pinhead to that of a dime, that ex- 
tend and increase in number, until nearly all of the 
skin of the affected part is covered. An examination 
of these spots shows that a thin scale or crust has 
formed on the surface of the skin. This crust often 




see 
eters 



DISEASES OF POULTRY. 



189 



develops in round or concentric deposits, raised at the 
border and depressed at the center, giving to the sjiots 
a cup -shaped appearance. The crust increases in 
thickness until in the course of a month it may l:e 
one -fourth inch or more in depth. It is then of a 
dirty-white color, scaly and irre:jular on the surface. 
When the crust is removed the skin is seen to be irri - 
tated and slightly -^ 

excoriated. The 
disease extends 
from the bare parts 
of the head to the 
parts of the body 
covered with 
feathers. The 
neck, the region 
about the vent, and 
the adjoining sur- 
faces are soon in- 
vaded. The 
feathers become 
dry, erect and brit- 
tle, they break and 
fall off leaving the 
skin denuded and 
c overed w i th 
crusts, which are 
often cup -shaped, having in the center the depression 
in which the feather was fixed. 

At first the general health of the bird is not visibly 
affected, it appears bright, eats well and conducts it- 
self as usual. After a time, however, when a con- 
siderable area has been invaded, it manifests weak- 
ness, loses flesh, its appetite becomes irregular and it 







I >fr 



^3 — He id iiid neck of a 
wiin generalized favi 



f \\ 1 iff acted 



190 



DISEASES OF POULTRY. 



falls into a decline which continues until the forces 
of the body are exhausted and it dies. During the 
course of the disease the affected birds give off a dis- 
agreeable odor which has been likened by some to that 
of moldy cheese and by others to the exhalations from 
mice, cat's urine, or macerating animal substances. 

Causation. — Favus is a contagious disease, and, 
as has already been stated, it is caused by a fungus 
which has been named Achorioii Schonlcinii. If a 

small particle of one 
'P of the crusts is taken, 

• O .. ."^-C^ |\ placed upon a glass 

t'^ slip and moistened 
with water or dilute 
acetic acid and sul)- 
mitted to microscopic 
examination at a 
magnification of 300 
to 500 diameters, it is 
seen to be made up of 
threads or mycelium 
of the fungus held to- 
gether by a thick, 
viscid, gelatinous sui) - 
stance which it se- 
cretes. Numerous 
spherical or ovoid 
spores are also visible 
both within the filaments and in a free condition. An 
examination of the feathers on the affected parts re - 
veals the fact that the fung-us has penetrated the shaft, 
filled it with crusts, and has in some cases even 
reached the barbs. 

The disease may be inoculated from bird to bird. 




Fig-. 54. — The Achoiioii .Srlioii/iiiiii of the 
favus of poultry; mag-nified 800 diameters. 

tT\ empty tubes; //, tubes filled with 
protoplasm and containing spores; s, iso- 
lated spores. 



DISEASES OF POULTRY. 191 

and probably also from mice, rats, rabbits, cats and 
dogs to birds. On the other hand, it may probably 
also be communicated from birds to these animals and 
to children. Some authorities consider the poultry 
favus a distinct form of the disease and not communi- 
cable to mammals, but the weight of evidence favors 
the conclusion that the disease in all of these species 
is identical and intercommunicable. Apparently a 
wound or abrasion of the skin is necessary to enable 
the fungus to obtain a foothold. The filaments and 
spores suspended in water have been placed upon the 
combs of poultry without effect, until the surface of 
the skin was scratched or abraded. As fowls come 
into close contact with each other and often have 
wounds of the skin from fighting or other causes, the 
disease spreads rapidly among them and unless proper 
measures are adopted for its arrest the results may be 
disastrous to the flock. Young birds appear to be 
more susceptible to this disease than old ones, and 
large birds particularly of the Asiatic breeds are pre- 
disposed to it though no varieties are altogether 
exempt. 

Treatment. — Favus yields readily to proper treat- 
ment if it is not allowed to develop too far before 
remedial measures are applied. When confined to the 
parts of the head that are bare of feathers, it is not 
difficult to manage, but when it spreads to parts cov- 
ered by feathers and also affects the plumage it be- 
comes much more serious. 

It is important that the remedy used should pene- 
trate beneath the crusts to the skin, and to secure this 
the crusts may be rubbed off as thoroughly as possi- 
ble with a blunt instrument such as the handle of a 
spoon. This should be done gently so as not to cause 



192 DISEASES OF POULTRY. 

bleeding. After the crusts are removed dress the af- 
fected part once a day with any one of the following 
preparations : Tincture of iodine. Benzine 1 part, 
soft soap 20 parts; mix thoroughly before using. Or 
carbolic acid 1 part, soft soap 20 parts, to be well 
mixed. The carbolic preparation should not be ap- 
plied to a large surface at one time as the acid may be 
absorbed and cause poisoning. A good ointment may 
be made with either calomel or red oxide of mercury 
1 part to 8 parts of vaseline. If the above mentioned 
remedies fail a more active, but also more dangerous 
ointment may be made by mixing 3 grains of nitrate 
of silver with V^ ounce of vaseline. This ointment 
should be made by the druggist and carefully rubbed 
upon the diseased surface. Another remed3^ which 
on account of its poisonous character should onlj- be 
used as a last resort, is made by dissolving 10 grains 
of corrosive sublimate in an ounce of water. 

In the remedies here mentioned the means are pro- 
vided for effectually arresting this troublesome malady 
and eradicating it from the poultry-yard. If taken 
in time, the application of the milder preparations 
daily for a few days will be sufficient; but in case a 
number of birds become affected and particular!}' if 
feathered parts are involved, the more active agents 
will be required. It is, also, necessary to adopt sani- 
tary regulations. The affected birds should be sepa- 
rated from the well ones, and the houses and ru is 
should be disinfected with limewash and carbolic 
acid solution. 

CHICKEN POX — SORE HEAD — PIGEON POX. 

This disease has been for many years familiar to 
students of veterinary medicine, both in Kurope and 
America. It was at first thought to be a form of 



DISEASKS OF POULTRY 



193 



variola, allied to cow pox if not identical with it. 
Careful study has shown, however, that it is an en- 
tirely distinct disease. Some persons lacking a better 
name have called it warts. More recently it was de- 
scribed by Bollinger as epithelioma eoniagiosum and 
was by him and others supposed to be caused by the 
low forms of animal parasites known as psorosperuis. 
The disease has, therefore, been called by some writers 
cutaneous psorospermosis. In 1897, Sanfelice published 
a notable paper on the subject from which it appears 




Fijr. 55. FifT. 56. 

FifT. 55. — Inoculated pifreoii 6 days after appearance of first symptorus. 
Fi{f. So. Inoculated pifjeon lU days after appearance of first symptonts. 

that chicken pox is caused by a fungus of the group 
now known to scientists as blastomyfetes. 

Chicken pox affects ordinar}^ fowls, turkeys, pig- 
eons, and, more rarely, geese. Pigeons, and young 
chickens are particularly susceptible. Grown fowls 
are only occasionally affected. The malady while 
widespread and well known is a disease of warm 
countries, and is usually found in Southern Europe 
and the Gulf Section of the United States. It is there 
very destructive, attacking a large proportion of the 
birds, and unless it is early and vigorously treated it 
causes much damage and many deaths. 

Symptoms. — This disease chiefly affects the head 
of poultry, and appears as an eruption of round or 
oblong, yellow nodules, varying from the size of -a pin- 



194 DISEASES OF POULTRY. 

head to that of a pea or a grain of corn. The largest 
are found about the beak, the nostrils, the eyelids, 
and upon other parts of the head that are free from 
feathers. They form rough, yellow masses upon the 
comb and wattles. The eruption may be localized 
where it first appears or it may extend to the feathered 
portions of the body. 

With pigeons the eruption has a tendency to become 
diffuse and invades the neck, the lower surface of the 
body, the inner sides of the legs and wings, the rump 
and even the upper surface of the wings. 

The nodules, which at first have somewhat the ap- 
pearance of the warts ofter s€en upon the hands of 
children, reach their full development in from five to 
ten days. They soon show a central depression, an 
opening forms, or the summit is rubbed off accident- 
ally or by the bird's beak, after which there is a dis- 
charge of a watery, or, later, of a thick, yellowish 
matter which soils the feathers and which if abundant 
may become foul and disagreeable. 

When the disease is localized, the general health of 
the bird does not appear to suffer, and spontaneous 
recovery may occur. In this case the nodules dry up 
and form a crust which falls off either as a whole or 
in particles. Generally, however, the disease extends, 
the birds become emaciated, the plumage is rough, 
the strength is exhausted, and death results. In the 
most violent cases, especially with pigeons, the erup- 
tion extends to the mucous membranes of the mouth 
and nostrils, the resulting inflammation takes on a 
diphtheritic form, and early death follows. 

Causation. — This disease has long been recog- 
nized as contagious and to spread from one bird to 
another. If an affected bird is introduced into a flock, 



DISEASES OF POULTRY. 195 

the roosting places become infected, and the contagion 
is spread about the premises and it is not long- before 
other birds become diseased. Rivolta concluded that 
the disease was not transmitted by placing the infec- 
tious matter upon the sound skin; but Pfeiffer sue - 
ceeded in causing the disease in fowls and pigeons by 
inoculating it through punctures of the skin. San- 
felice has repeated these experiments with the result 
that the disease was invariably caused in pigeons by 
inoculation into the eyelids ; and in the case of ten 
pigeons with which the infectious matter was simply 
smeared upon the eyelids, two contracted the disease. 
It appears, therefore, that while an abrasion of the 
surface or a deeper wound facilitates the entrance of 
the contagion into the tissues, the parasite may in 
certain cases, at least, penetrate the normal skin. 

Some have supposed that the bites of fleas and 
mosquitoes, others that the punctures of ticks produce 
this disease. Undoubtedly these act simply by fur- 
nishing an easy entrance for the germs. The blas- 
tomycetes or fungi appear to multiply outside of the 
birds' bodies, probably in the accumulations of excre- 
ment which exist in many poultry -houses. Some 
moisture is necessary for the growth of these germs, 
and hence it is not surprising that poultry raisers 
have observed that the disease appears in those houses 
which have leaky roofs or into which water can pene- 
trate through the walls and thus moisten the drop- 
pings. It is well known that fungi are most numerous 
in the atmosphere during wet weather while bacteria 
are most numerous during dry times. This fact may 
account for the prevalence of sore head during wet 
weather. It is, also, a matter of observation that this 
disease is much more prevalent and fatal among late- 



196 DISEASES OF POULTRY. 

hatched chickens than among those raised early in the 
season. The development and spread of the con- 
tagion is influenced, therefore, by the condition of the 
poultry -houses, by the season of the year, and to a 
certain extent by the weather. 

Treatment. — The prophylactic or preventive 
treatment consists in excluding affected birds from 
the premises; in keeping the poultry -houses and pig- 
eon-cotes clean and dry ; and in hatching the chickens 
early on farms where the disease is troublesome. Dis- 
infection by whitewashing the houses, or spraying 
them thoroughly with a solution containing three to 
five per cent of carbolic acid and then opening them 
for the drying action of the sun and air is a val- 
uable means of guarding against an outbreak of the 
disease. 

The curative treatment consists of the local appli- 
cation of those remedies which have been found 
efficient for the destruction of the parasitic blastomy- 
cetes. Some persons have been successful by feeding 
sulphur, and at the same time, applying sulphur oint- 
ment twice a day to the nodules. Others have cured 
the affected birds by applying carbolic ointment, or 
glycerine containing two per cent of carbolic acid. 
Another treatment is to bathe the affected parts with 
soap and water in order to soften the crusts, and after- 
wards apply a solution of sulphate of copper (blue- 
stone), a dram to /^ pint of water. Sulphate of 
copper has been found destructive to many kinds of 
fungi, and, therefore, is promising in this disease. 
Tincture of iodine has also been recommended, both 
by itself and mixed with 10 per cent of carbolic acid, 
but this remedy is rather severe and should only be 



DISEASES OF POULTRY, 197 

applied sparingly and after the others mentioned have 
proved ineffectual. 

This local treatment should be accompanied by 
cleaning and disinfection of the houses, and, if possi- 
ble, changing to new, uninfected runs. The feeding 
troughs and drinking vessels should be daily washed 
with boiling water. 

When the disease first appears in a flock the affected 
birds should be at once isolated and treated, and the 
effort made by disinfection to prevent the further ex- 
tension of the contagion. 




198 DISEASES OF POULTRY. 



CHAPTER X. 



Diseases of the Feet and L,egs. 



LEO WEAKNESS — RHEUMATISM AND GOUT — SUPERFICIAI, 
SOKES — CORNS — DEEP BRUISES AND ABSCESSES — SCA- 
BIES OF THE LEGS AND FEET, SCAI.Y LEGS. 



LEG WEAKNESS. 
^V^ EG weakness is a term which is popularly 

II used to designate any condition in which 
/^ir birds find it difficult or impossible to sup- 
port themselves upon their legs. It may 
develop in young chickens kept in brooders in which 
the heat is not properly distributed or where there is 
too much bottom heat, also in those which are kept 
constantly upon wooden floors. It is often seen in 
heavy cockerels, and also occurs in flocks which have 
been forced or which are kept in badly ventilated and 
damp houses. 

This trouble is probably in most cases of a rheu- 
matic nature, affecting the muscles, tendons and 
joints. Frequently it consists only of bruises of the 
feet; while, sometimes, its nature is obscure and 
difficult to understand. 

Symptoms. — The disease may come on gradually 
or suddenly. In the former case, there is first seen 
an unsteadiness in the walk or lameness which be- 
comes more aggravated, until the bird, instead of 
standing upon its feet, sits down upon its legs^even 



DISEASES OF POULTRY. 199 

when eating^. In the worst cases, the birds are unable 
even to raise themselves to a standing position. 

Treatment. — First, examine the birds for bruised 
feet or inflammation of the joints and if either of these 
conditions is found apply local treatment as recom- 
mended in subsequent paragraphs. In all cases give 
cooling food, such as bran, barley, rice, green feed, 
skim milk or butter milk, and vegetables. Avoid 
condiments, meat and stimulating rations of all kinds. 
Give 5 grains bicarbonate of soda daily in the drink- 
ing water for grown fowls. See that the heat is 
properly applied in brooders, and that the birds have 
dry, well aired quarters. 

RHEUMATISM AND GOUT. 

All Species of fowls and especially chickens are sub- 
ject to rheumatic affections. The trouble begins with 
spasmodic jerking of the legs, and is followed by 
lameness, indisposition to remain standing, painful 
joints and refusal to walk. The feet and the next 
joint above (tibio -tarsal), are most frequently affected. 
After a time small swellings appear upon the sides of 
these joints, which are at first soft, and somewhat 
painful, but gradually become more firm until they 
feel like enlargements of the bones. Sometimes these 
swellings ulcerate, in which case the sores appear red, 
irregular in outline and bleeding. A yellowish flaky 
or stringy pus partly fills the sore and when this is re- 
moved the naked tendons, bones or joints may some- 
times be seen. The cavities of the joints are opened 
to the air, fistulas develop and death of the bone oc- 
curs. The disease is chronic in its development and 
the advanced stages are, therefore, generally seen in 
old birds. The affected birds may live a long time 
even when the disease has progressed to the extreme 



200 DISEASES OF POULTRY. 

degree described above. They lose flesh, however, 
their plumage becomes rough and dull, diarrhea sets 
in and death occurs from exhaustion. 

Treatment. — As rheumatism is usually caused by 
exposure to cold and dampness, the development of 
the disease in one or more fowls of a flock should be 
a warning to improve the ventilation and drainage of 
the houses. The buildings where the fowls live and 
roost should be thoroughly dry, free from draughts, yet 
well ventilated, and not too cold. With proper atten- 
tion to these sanitary arrangements the disease should 
be prevented. Affected birds should have frequent 
change of ration with plenty of green feed. Begin 
treatment with a dose of Epsom salts 20 to 30 grains. 
The following day add 30 to 40 grains of bicarbonate 
of soda (baking soda) to the quart of drinking water, 
and give 2 or 3 grains of salicjdic acid twice a day. 
Applj' camphorated or carbolic ointment to the af- 
fected joints. The birds which are seriously affected 
would be better killed than treated, and the main re- 
liance must be under any circumstances in prevention 
by securing proper sanitary conditions. 

DISEASES OF THE FEET. 

The feet of poultry are very subject to diseases 
which result from pricks, cuts, bruises, and other 
injuries. Although the weight of birds is small com- 
pared with that of most other domesticated animals, 
the fact that their nights are usually spent upon 
perches, that in flying from these perches they often 
alight ver}^ heavily, and that they scratch very vigor- 
ously in searching for their food, is a sufficient expla- 
nation of their peculiar liability to this class of in- 
juries. It is convenient for our purpose to divide the 
diseases of the feet, which result from injuries, into 



DISEASHS OF POULTRY. 



201 




Fig-. 57.— Skeleton of fowl. A, B, head; CD, vertebrae of the neck 
(cervical vertebrie); D, E, dorsal vertebrae; F, G, coccygeal vertebrae; H, 
humerus; I, ulna; J, radius; K, carpus; L, metacarpus; M, dig-its; N, 
coracoid bone; O, forculum; P, sternum; Q, keel; R, ribs; S, ilium; T, 
ischium; U, pubis; V, femur; W, patella; X, tibia; Y, fibula; Z, met- 
atarsus; a, digits. 



202 DISEASES OF POULTRY. 

three classes; viz.,1, superficial sores; 2, corns; 3, 
deep bruises and abscesses. 

SUPERFICIAL SORES. 
( Abrasio?is, Pricks, Cuts, Cracks, and Fissures.) 
Such injuries are not very serious, but if the bird is 
seen to be lame, and particularly if there is any heat 
or swelling about the toes or foot, suitable measures 
should be taken to make the bird comfortable and pre- 
vent the development of a more dangerous condition. 
If there is much inflammation indicated by heat and 
swelling, hold the foot in water almost as warm as 
the hand can bear for half an hour, adding hot water 
from time to time to keep up the temperature. Before 
the bird is released apply a small quantity of boric 
acid ointment (boric acid 1 part, vaseline 5 parts ) 
to the injured part. This ointment should also be 
applied to abrasions, cuts, and cracks where the hot 
water treatment is unnecessarj^, as it promotes rapid 
healing. Confine the bird to a yard covered with soft 
earth or young grass for a few days and do not allow 
it to roost vipon a perch until its feet are well. 

CORNS. 

The condition known as corns is an inflammation 
and thickening of the skin on the under surface of the 
foot, the result of prolonged pressure, irritation, and 
bruises. Corns are generally caused by too small or 
too narrow perches which compel the fowls to grasp 
them tightly in order to maintain their position. This 
firm grasp continued night after night affects the cir- 
culation of the part of the foot that comes in closest 
contact with the perch. More or less irritation and 
inflammation is set up, which leads to multiplication 
and enlargement of the cells of the part, and results 
in swelling and thickening of the skin. A similar 



DISEASES OF POULTRY. 203 

condition may be caused by heavy birds flying from 
their perches and alighting upon a stony surface or 
hard floor. 

Suitable precautions should be adopted to prevent 
the development of corns. The perches should be 
broad and flat, they should be of a proper height, and 
the floor upon which the birds alight should be cov- 
ered with earth or sand so the feet will not be bruised. 
The affected birds should be treated by paring off the 
thickened epidermis, without causing bleeding, and 
applying boric acid ointment (see above), or painting 
the part with tincture of iodine. 

DEEP BRUISES AND ABSCESSES. 

( Bumblejoot. ) 

This is an aggravation of the condition known as 
corns. It is seen in those cases where the irritation 
and bruising is most severe or prolonged. The af- 
fected part is hot, painful, and more or less swollen. 
Sometimes an abscess has formed, or in older cases 
this abscess may have broken and left a suppurating 
sore. In the most severe cases the joints may be in- 
flamed, and may even be penetrated by the pus chan- 
nels which have formed from the abscesses. 

As treatment employ the preventive measures al- 
ready mentioned for corns and other injuries to the 
feet. Soak the feet in warm water for a half hour 
twice a day and poultice until the inflammation is 
reduced. If an abscess in the sole is indicated by a 
soft, fluctuating swelling of the part, it should be 
opened with a sharp knife. After the poulticing is 
completed apply boric acid ointment and protect the 
feet with a piece of cotton cloth. If the joints have 
become affected, and particularly if these communicate 
with the pus channels and are the seat of suppuration, 



204 



DISEASES OF POULTRY 



the bird should be killed, as its treatment would be 
unprofitable, and its entire recovery would not be 
probable. 

SCABIES OF THE LEGS AND FEET — SCALV LEGS. 

Symptoms.— In scabies of the legs, the epidermic 
scales on the anterior surface of the legs and upon the 
upper surface of the foot, become 
loosened and elevated by the forma- 
tion of a whitish crust or compacted 
powdery substance beneath them. 
The raising of these scales gives the 
leg a rough and enlarged appearance 
which is easily recognized and is very 
characteristic. 

This form of scabies begins in the 
clefts between the toes and runs a 
very slow course. The elevation of 
the epidermic scales is very gradual. 
At first there is observed only a 
SufieTfoo"diam'- sHght thickening of these scales, and 
®**^''^- roughness, but the continued forma- 

tion of the white, powderj^ crust aggravates this con- 
dition, causes the scales to become detached and to 
assume a position nearly perpendicular to the surface. 
The disease extends up the leg and also along the toes 
until the whole shank and foot become involved. The 
two legs are usually affected at the same time and to 
about the same degree. 

Unless treated the disease continues to progress, the 
epidermic scales are detached, the joints become af- 
fected and the birds walk with difficulty. In the most 
severe cases a joint or even an entire toe may become 
detached, the birds lose flesh and die from exhaustion. 
There appears to be only a moderate degree of itching. 




Fig-. 5S. — S<7rro/<trs 
mutaiis of the fowl; 



DISEASES OF POULTRY. 



205 



The birds occasionally peck at or scratch the affected 
parts with the beak. They do this most frequently 
at night and in warm weather. 

Causation. — Scaly legs is a form of scabies or 
mange caused by the mite known as the Sarcoptes 
muta?is. It is a strictly contagious disease although 
it does not spread rapidly from bird to bird, and there 
may be only a few noticeably affected birds in a flock. 
The Asiatic breeds are most 
susceptible to it, and many 
birds, even of these breeds, 
resist the attacks of the mites, 
and never show any symptoms. 
It attacks quite a variety of 
birds — fowls, turkeys, pheas- 
ants, partridges and cage 
birds, but has not been ob- 
served in ducks and geese. In 
the production of scaly legs, 

i\).Q. SarCOptCS )>n{t (HIS ^y^nQtrdiie^S Fie. so.— .V^rro/A-.v wntans of 

, . , . , tbe fowl; ovijj-erous female: 

beneath the epidermic scales dorsal surface; maffniflecl 100 

, , f . 1 diameters. 

on the upper surface of the 

foot and the front of the shank, and by burrowing there 
sets up an irritation which leads to a multiplication of 
the cells of the part, and an exudation of serum. It 
is by the union of these two products that the white, 
powdery crust is formed, which raises the epidermic 
scales from their normal position. If the crusts are 
removed and the under surface examined with a lens 
they are found to contain a large number of depres- 
sions in each of which a female, egg-containing Sar- 
copt is lodged. The larvae, males and j^ounger females 
are found wandering beneath the crusts. The crust 
contains so manj^ cavities that it has very much the 




206 



DISEASES OF POULTRY 



appearance of dried bread. As the crust thickens by 
deposits on the inner surface, the cavities first formed 
become smaller by the drying of the walls surround- 
ing them, and the Sarcopt abandons this location for 
a position nearer the flesh, where there is more mois- 
ture. The mites are, there- 
fore, only found on the in- 
ner surface of the crust, 
although the cavities or 
honey -combed appearance 
exists throughout the 
whole substance. 

Treat MEN t. — When 
this disease is first observed 
in a flock, prompt and 
energetic measures should 
be adopted to eradicate it. 
The affected birds should 
be isolated to prevent the 
spread of the contagion. 
The houses which they 
have occupied should be 
thoroughly cleaned. The 
roosts and other woodwork 
should be scalded with 
boiling water or covered 
with carbolated lime wash. 
The treatment of the af- 
fected birds is the same as 
with scabies of the body, 
with the single exception that the loosened scales must 
be removed in order to bring the remedy in contact 
with the mites. In order to accomplish this the legs 
should be soaked for a sufficient time in warm water 




60. — Scabies of 
(scaly legs). 



DISEASES OF POUI.TRY. 207 

to which some soa]:) has been added. When thorough - 
Ij' softened the loose scales may be removed without 
causing bleeding. Or, a coating of soft soap may be 
applied to the affected parts, leaving it to act for from 
twelve to twenty -four hours. The legs are then placed 
in warm water and the scales softened and removed by 
gentle rubbing and traction. After this has been done 
the legs are dried and treated with a good coat of 
Helmerich's ointment, creolin ointment (1 to 10), 
carbolic ointment (1 to 10), or balsam of Peru. The 
latter may be applied daily for three or four days, and 
is better adapted than the other remedies to the treat- 
ment of young or delicate birds, since it is equally 
ef^cacious in destroj'ing the mites and has little if any 
injurious effect upon the birds. The disease is not 
a difficult one to cure if the preliminary treatment is 
thorough and the loose scales and crusts are all re- 
moved. 






208 DISEASES OF POULTRY. 



CHAPTER XI. 



Infectious Diseases Having a Tendency to 
Affect More than One Set of Organs. 



TUBERCUIvOSIS— DIPHTHEKIA, DIPHTHERITIC ROUP— INFEC- 
TIOUS I^EUK^EMIA — FOWI. CHOI^ERA. 



tuberculosis. 
/^fc^HERE is frequent mention in medical litera- 
/ I ture of tuberculosis in birds. In Europe 
^^i^ this disease appears to be very common, and 
it is by no means rare in the United States, if 
the statements of our professional men are to be 
accepted. The observations recorded previous to 
1884, and those made since that time, which are not 
based upon the demonstration of the Bacillus tubercu- 
losis, can not be accepted as ]:)erfectl3' reliable. There 
are a number of diseases in which the symptoms and 
appearances of the diseased organs are so nearly alike 
that a microscopical examination must be made before 
their nature can be determined. The existence of 
tuberculosis is determined by the presence of the germ 
which produces it. Consequently, it is only since the 
characters of this germ were made known that we 
have been able to make a reliable diagnosis in sus- 
pected cases. Koch demonstrated beyond doubt the 
occurrence of tuberculosis in fowls, and observed that 
the bacilli were extraordinarily abundant in the nod- 



DISEASES OF POULTRY. 209 

iiles of the intestines and liver, and, also, in the con- 
tents of the intestines. 

Sutton observed tuberculosis in grain -eating birds 
of various parts of England and states that "the 
occurrence of tuberculosis in these places may be re- 
garded as showing that it is probably met with in 
most parts of England." 

Nocard, a French veterinarian, says: "Tubercu- 




Fiff. 61. — Tubercular tumor of the winpf. 

losis is a frequent disease with birds of the poultry - 
yard. It occurs with them in an epidemic form. It 
attacks fowls, pheasants, pigeons, turkeys, peacocks, 
guinea fowls, etc., and it may even be produced in 
small birds experimentally." In 600 autopsies of 
fowls made by Zuern, presumably in Germany, sixty - 
two, or ten per cent, were found tuberculous. 

In the cases reported in the United States there 
appears to have been very few instances in which the 
diagnosis was confirmed by bacteriological examina- 
tion and the demonstration of the bacillus. 

Symptoms. — The symptoms which are observed in 
the tuberculosis of birds are common to other diseases, 
and, therefore, while they are valuable as an indication 
of the nature of the disease, they are not sufficient to 
permit an absolutely reliable conclusion to be reached. 
There is rapid and progressive emaciation, made 



210 DISEASES OF POULTRY. 

apparent by the loss of weig^ht, wasting of the 
muscles, and prominence of the bones. The comb 
becomes pale, the bird loses its bright, animated ex- 
pression, and in the later stages becomes quite dull 
and sleepy. At this time a persistent diarrhea appears 
which increases in intensity until the subject dies from 
exhaustion. 

The symptoms just enumerated are those observed 
when the disease is confined to the internal organs. 
It often affects the joints and bones, when it is re- 
vealed by lameness, swellings of the joints and de- 
formities of the bones. Occasionally ulcers form, in 
the pus of which many bacilli are found. 

The skin and external mucous membranes are 
frequently affected with parrots but more rarely with 
other birds. There are first seen small grayish eleva- 
tions which unite and form patches. Thick crusts 
form on these patches, becoming hard externally and 
soft and cheesy next to tissues. If these crusts are 
removed a red granular surface is exposed. Some- 
times the crusts, particularly near the eye or mouth, 
become horny and develop into excrescences an inch 
or more in length. 

Appearance of the Organs. — In poultry and 
pheasants the abdominal viscera are the most common 
seat of the disease. The liver is most frequently and 
most severely affected. The spleen is also very often 
attacked. 

These organs are enlarged and more or less filled 
with tubercles which may vary in size from small 
whitish or grayish points, to nodules the size of a pea, 
or to tumors the size of a walnut which are fibrous, 
firm and often softened at the center. The tubercles 
may also be hard and calcareous. The liver is more 



DISEASES OF POULTRY. 



211 



friable than in health, and ruptures leading to fatal 
hemorrhages may occur. 

The peritoneum, or serous membrane of the 

abdominal cavity, may be covered with tubercles the 

size of a pin head or smaller; and when this occurs 

the abdomen usually contains more or less liquid. 

The intestinal walls are often thickened or ulcerated, 

and contain tuber- 
cles of various 
sizes. Sometimes 
these are so large 
that they diminish 
the caliber of the 
tube or entirely ob- 
struct it. The soft- 
ening and breaking 
down of the tuber- 
cles on the inner 
surface of the in- 
testine cause the 
ulcerations which 
are commonly seen in this disease, and from which 
the bacilli escape in incalculable numbers. 

The abdominal lymphatic glands may be invaded 
by the tubercular process and enlarged to the size of 
an egg. 

Small tubercles, the size of a pin head or less, and 
sometimes larger tubercular masses, are occasionally 
found in the lungs, air -sacs, heart and pericardium, 
but these organs are more rarely affected than are 
those situated in th6 abdominal region. 

Generalized tuberculosis is not uncommon and in 
this form of the disease most or all of the organs of 




F\S' 62. — Tubercular tumor of the head. 



212 



DISEASES OF POULTRY. 



the body are affected — the tubercles being found even 
in the interior of the bones. 

The joints are frequently the seat of tubercular in- 
flammation leading to swelling, abscesses, ulcers, 
fistulas and loss of 
movement. Swellings, 
ulcers, and cheesy 
formations are some- 
times seen about the 
mouth, eyes and nose, 
and horny excrescences 
may appear upon the 
skin of the head. 
These external mani- 
festations are the rule 
with parrots. 

Cause and Na- 
ture. — The tubercu- 
losis of birds, like that 
of mankind, is caused 
by a bacillus. The 
bacillus of birds in a 
general way resembles 
that of man, but is 
larger, more vigorous 

and hardy, and grows FI^. 63.-Sectioa of r.ver of bird affected 

better outside of the witu tuberculosis. 

body. The disease is strictly contagious, and 
usually appears in a flock as a consequence of bring- 
ing in new birds. That is, it results from contagion 
carried by birds from other diseased flocks. 

Many outbreaks have been attributed to infection 
from eating the sputum of persons affected with con- 
sumption. The possibility of such infection is ad- 




DISEASES OF POULTRY. 



213 



iniUed by some authorities and denied by others. It 
is certain that poultry and pigeons are not easily in- 
fected experimentally with the tul^erculosis of people, 
cattle and other animals which are classed together as 
mammals. This may sometimes be accomplished; 
but after one bird is infected in this way it is equally 
difficult to transmit the disease from this bird to other 





Fiyr. 64.— Growth of liora from region of head affected with tuberculosis. 

birds. It appears, therefore, out of the question to 
produce a rapidly spreading outbreak of disease 
among fowls or pigeons by the use of human virus. 

The bird or avian tuberculosis spreads rapidly from 
bird to bird and is easily transmitted experimentally 
to birds, but it has liitle effect upon most mammals 
which are very susceptible to human tuberculosis. 
There is, consequently, a marked difference between 
avian and mammalian tuberculosis. The disease in 
the two cases does not appear to be absolutely 
distinct, but should rather be regarded as two varieties 
of the same malady. These varieties have been de- 
veloped because the bacilli have grown for a long 
series of years under different conditions. They may 
still possibly be changed from mammalian to avian 



214 DISEASES OF POULTRY. 

and from avian to mammalian, but such a change cer- 
tainly would require much time and very favorable 
conditions. 

A very interesting fact is that parrots are usually 
affected with the mammalian form of tuberculosis. 
The disease is quite frequently seen in these birds and 
it shows a great tendency to develop externally. It 
most commonly affects the borders of the eyes and 
mouth, the skin and the joints of the feet. There are 
at first small swellings, some of which soften, dis- 
chaj"ge their contents and become ulcers; others re- 
main hard and continue to enlarge, while still others 
are covered by a horny growth of considerable thick- 
ness. When the feet are affected the joints swell and 
the bones are more or less deformed, leading many 
who are not well informed on the subject to consider 
the disease as simple gout. 

It has been shown by experiments that it is very 
difficult to infect fowls and pigeons by inoculation 
from parrots, but rabbits, guinea pigs and dogs read- 
ily contract the disease by such inoculation. It is 
concluded from the various facts which have been re- 
corded, that the tuberculosis of parrots is identical 
with tuberculosis or consumption in man ; that parrots 
are infected from diseased people and may in turn in- 
fect other people. The germs of the disease are 
found in enormous numbers in the discharge from the 
ulcers, in the secretion of the nasal passages and often 
in the excrement. The cages are soiled with these 
different excretions, which soon become dry, are re- 
duced to dust and then disseminated through the air 
of the apartment by the flapping of the bird's wings. 
People breathing this atmosphere take the germs into 
their lungs and in that way become infected. Other 



DISEASES OF POULTRY. 



215 



species of cage birds may contract human tuberculosis 
and distribute it in the same manner. 

On the other hand, as poultry and pigeons do not 
readily contract tuberculosis from persons, it seems 
proliable that mankind is in no great danger of be- 
coming infected from these birds. It is well to use 

reasonable precau- 
tions, however, 
when the disease is 
detected in the 
poultry-yard or 
pigeon -cote, as 
there are some 
cases recorded 
where it is believed 
that flocks of poul - 
try have been in- 
fected by eating 
the sputum of hu- 
man consumptives. 
When a bird is 
found to be diseased 

Fig-. 65.— Tuberculosis of the foot (parrot). it sllOUld, of COUrSC, 

be safely disposed of at once ; but there is no reason 
for the alarm and panic which have been exhibited by 
some owners of flocks supposed to be affected. 

Diagnosis. — As there are a number of different 
conditions found in birds which simulate tuberculosis, 
it is well, when the disease is suspected, to have its 
identity confirmed by an expert. A microscopical 
examination showing the presence of the Bbacillus 
tuberculosis \^\h& most reliable and satisfactory evi- 
dence. According to Nocard, the tuberculin test may 
be used as with cattle or other animals. The dose 




216 DISEASES OF POULTRY. 

stated by him is 5 to 10 centigrams for fowls, pigeons 
and pheasants, and 10 to 2 centigrams for geese, 
turkej'S and peacocks. 

Treatment. — The eradication of tuberculosis in 
birds from an infected premises can only be attempted 
with a fair prospect of success when all the birds are 
sacrificed. Any individuals that are preserved are 
liable to have ulcerations of the intestines, from which 
the bacilli are constantly distributed. There should, 
consequently, be no attempt to save any birds from an 
infected flock. 

When the birds are all killed and disposed of by 
burning or deeply burying, the premises should be 
carefully disinfected. The manure should be carefully 
scraped and swept together and saturated with a five- 
per-cent solution of carbolic acid or mixed with lime. 
The floors and woodwork of the houses should be 
washed with boiling water or with a hot solution of 
carbolic acid. The feeding troughs, drinking vessels 
and nests should be treated in the same manner. Any 
yards used for penning birds should be sprinkled with 
the carbolic acid solution. 

After the cleaning and disinfection is accomplished 
the premises should be opened to the sun and air for a 
month if possible before new birds are introduced. It 
is then a good plan to cover the walls and roosts with 
lime wash, to which 4 ounces of crude carbolic 
acid to the gallon has been added, and ventilate a few 
daj'S longer before the houses are used. Those who 
scrupulously enforce these measures may be reason- 
ably certain that the contagion will be destroyed and 
that the new flock may be safely introduced. 

DIPHTHERIA, DIPHTHERITIC ROUP. 

Among the several diseases which have been con- 



DISEASES OF POULTRY. 217 

founded together by modern writers under the general 
name of roup, one of the most prevalent and destruc- 
tive is the diphtheria of birds, or diphtheritic roup. 
While some writers are of the opinion that contagious 
catarrh and diphtheria are caused by the same species 
of bacillus, differing only in the degree of virulence, 
the fact that in extensive outbreaks of the former 
disease there are apparently no diphtheritic membranes 
to be found, bears strongly against this theory and 
makes it desirable, at least for the present, to describe 
these different forms of disease separately. 

The diphtheria of birds is a contagious disease 
which first affects the mucous membrane of the nasal 
passages, the eyes, the mouth, the pharjmx and 
larynx and which may extend to the trachea, the 
bronchi, the air -sacs, the intestines and perhaps to 
other abdominal organs. The disease is characterized 
by a grayish -yellow fibrinous exudate, called a false 
membrane., which forms upon the mucous surface of 
the parts mentioned. This exudate is intimately 
attached to the living tissues, so that when it is 
forcibly removed a raw, bleeding surface may be left. 
Its formation may be so abundant as to obstruct the 
passages through which the air is drawn into the 
lungs. The appearance of the diseased parts bears a 
close resemblance to what is seen in human diphtheria, 
but the bacillus which is believed to cause avian 
diphtheria is quite distinct from that which causes the 
disease in children, and it is, therefore, concluded that 
the diphtheria of mankind and that of birds are 
entirely different diseases. There are some striking 
cases on record, however, which indicate that the 
diphtheria of fowls may be communicated to children 
in some instances and cause a serious or even fatal 



218 



DISEASES OF POUI/rRY. 



diphtheritic sore throat. On the other hand it is 
asserted that the diphtheria of children is sometimes 
communicated to birds, and that the contagion may 
be thus preserved for a considerable time and again 
transmitted to children. The avian diphtheria affects 
the common fowl, turkeys, ducks, pea -fowls, pigeons, 
pheasants and probably many other 
varieties of birds. In some out- 
breaks, it is very acute, progresses 
with great rapidity, and destroys 
most of the birds attacked. 

Symptoms. — When first attacked, 
the affected birds present the symp- 
toms of common cold or catarrh. 
There is a watery secretion from the 
nostrils and often from the eyes, with 
general weakness and prostration 
greater than would be expected from 
simple catarrh. The birds sit with 
the back arched, the head and neck 
drawn down towards the body, the 
plumage roughened ; the respiration 
is more or less obstructed, rapid, 
audible and strident ; the vision 
swallowing is difficult. There is frequent shaking of 
the head, sneezing and expectoration of mucous secre- 
tions. If the mouth is examined at this early period 
the tongue is found to be pale, while small grayish 
spots, shaded with black, and slightly projecting 
above the surface are seen along the border, the upper 
surface or at the base. 

The following day the condition is aggravated, the 
temperature is several degrees above the normal, the 
appetite has disappeared, and there is diarrhea with 




Figr. 66.— Floor of 
the mouth showiiifj 
the diphtlieritic exu- 
date over the toilrrue. 



is impaired and 



DISEASES OF POULTRY. 219 

greenish or yellowish evacuations. From the open 
beak there escapes a thick, stringy, grayish mucus. 
The eyes are unnaturally dilated, projecting and 
partly covered with the thick secretion which has 
accumulated between the lids. The nostrils are ob- 
structed by the thickened and dried secretion. Walk- 
ing is irregular and difficult. The mucous membrane 
of the mouth and pharynx is red, congested, inflamed 
and shows numerous dark red elevations covered with 
fibrinous exudate. The patches on the tongue have 
increased in size, they are gray in color, dried along 
the edges of the tongue but soft and flattened upon its 
upper surface and are covered with membranous 
deposits. The voice often fails. 

The third, fourth or fifth day, the whole interior of 
the mouth may be covered with false membranes ob- 
structing almost completely the openings of the 
pharynx and larynx. Swallowing is very difficult or 
impossible and breathing is liable to be arrested at 
any time. The false membrane first appears as a 
thin yellowish or grayish layer and becomes thicker 
as the disease advances. With pigeons, it is cheesy 
(caseous) and easily detached, while with fowls it is 
more resistant, fibrous, and can only be removed with 
some force, generally leaving a raw, bleeding or 
ulcerated surface. I^ater, this membrane becomes 
irregular and rough on the surface, dry, fissured and 
of a brownish color. The decomposition of the 
membranes at this period gives the breath a very 
marked and disagreeable odor of decomposition. At 
this time it may be removed without causing bleeding, 
as the surface beneath has partly or entirely healed. 

In certain cases the false membranes form in the 
trachea and extend to the luners and air -sacs. There 



220 DISEASES OF POULTRY. 

is then great difficulty of breathing:, with panting and 
wheezing. The bird is compelled to extend its neck 
and open its mouth to admit the air. The false mem- 
branes may also form in the oesophagus and intestines. 
This complication is particularly' liable to occur with 
turkej's and waterfowls and is indicated by aggrava- 
tion of the general symptoms with copious diarrhea 
and the escape of blood with the evacuations. 

The membrane lining the nasal passages is often 
severely affected. This is usually due to an exten- 
sion of the diphtheritic process by way of the fissure 
of the palate. By the accumulation of the exudate, 
the roof of the mouth is forced downwards, the eye- 
balls are pressed outwards, swellings appear over or 
near the orbital space and the head becomes deformed. 
The swollen parts are congested, tense, and when cut 
open there escapes a thick whitish liquid, or soft, 
j^ellowish, cheesy masses are found. 

The conjunctiva or membrane covering the eye is, 
also, very frequently affected and the disease may 
begin at this point. The eyes are, then, red and 
weeping; the lids are hot, swollen and painful. The 
secretions, at first serous, then purulent and caseous, 
accumulate in the angle of the ej^e or glue the lids 
together. If large masses are allowed to collect under 
the lids they press upon the cornea, cause irritation 
and ulceration and lead to perforation with destruction 
of the sight. 

The acute form of the disease just described is the 
more common, but very often it assumes a chronic 
form with obscure symptoms. The birds are dull, 
weak, lose flesh and fail to lay eggs There may be 
slight catarrh and difficulty of breathing and a care- 
ful examination, particularly if it be a postmortem 



DISEASES OF POULTRY. 221 

examination, may revenl patches of exudate in the 
nasal passages, th.e mouth, the pharynx or larynx. 
In some cases no local manifestations can be detected 
and diphtheria is onlj^ suspected because other mem- 
bers of the flock with similar symptoms present the 
false membrants. 

The course of the disease varies from a few days in 
the acute form to several weeks in the chronic form. 
In the very acute cases the disease is exceedingly 
destructive and a large part of the flock may die in a 
few daj^s. The chronic form may not cause many 
deaths, but renders the birds unproductive for weeks 
or months. Between these two extremes there are all 
gradations of virulence. 

The period between exposure to the contagion and 
the development of the symptoms may be only three 
or four days or as long as two weeks. The disease 
produced by inoculation appears within ten days with 
fowls and within three days with pigeons. 

Causation. — The diphtheria of birds is undoubt- 
edly contagious. It is usually introduced into a flock 
by the exposure of the birds to sick ones at shows or 
by bringing affected birds on the premises. The 
contagion may be carried by birds which have the dis - 
ease in so mild a form that they show no symptoms of 
it. There is a general belief that the disease may be 
developed by exposure of birds to draughts of air, or 
by keeping them in damp, filthy and badly -ventilated 
houses. This opinion is probably incorrect and is 
accounted for by the early symptoms of acute diph- 
theria, and those of all stages of the chronic form, re- 
sembling the symptoms seen in catarrhs and colds. 
Dampness and lack of ventilation no doubt favor the 
maintenance and development of the contagion and 



222 DISKASES OF POULTRY. 

predispose the birds to the disease. It is, however, 
very doubtful if the disease can be originated by such 
conditions in the absence of direct infection from 
affected birds. 

Bacteriological investigations made by Loeffler, 
Loir and Ducloux, and Moore indicate that the 
diphtheria of birds is caused by a non -motile bacillus 
0.8 to 1.5 micro -millimeters long by 0.8 to 1.2 micro - 
millimeters broad, resembling somewhat the bacillus 
of fowl cholera, and rabbit septicaemia. There are 
slight differences in the descriptions given by these 
investigators — differences which may be accounted for 
by variations of the germs under dissimilar conditions. 
All who have carefully studied the bacillus agree in 
the conclusion that it is entirely distinct from human 
diphtheria and that -these diseases have only superficial 
points of resemblance. It has been found, however, 
that a form of diphtheritic sore throat sometimes 
occurs in people who are working about birds affected 
with diphtheria ; but this disease differs radically from 
the ordinary human diphtheria and is much less 
serious. There are recorded cases, moreover, in 
which it appears that the diphtheria of children has 
been communicated to birds and the contagion 
preserved for a considerable time in that manner. 
It may be that some of the cases of fatal disease 
in children contracted from fowls were caused 
by the contagion of the human form of the disease 
preserved in this way. 

There are probably several distinct diseases which 
have been and are generally confounded together as 
diphtheria or diphtheritic roup. A disease of the na- 
ture of croupous angina has been described in pullets 
and young pigeons by Rivolta and Djlprato and also 



DISEASES OF POULTRY 



223 



by Pfeiffer which was attributed by these authors to 
flagellate infusoria. A similar disease in pigeons 
believed to be caused by bacteria was investigated by 
lyoeffier. Purulent collections about the head and 
oesophagus sometimes resemble dii)htheria very 
closely. The disease of the skin known as chif^ken 
pox and sore head, caused by blastomycetes, has bj^ 
some writers been called diphtheria. 
Aspergillosis of the mouth in 
pigeons and croupous enteritis of 
fowls produced l:)y coccidia are also 
diseases which may be mistaken 
for diphtheria. These various dis- 
eases must be borne in mind in 
determining the nature of any 
outbreak. 

Treatment. — The treatment 
may be divided into three parts : 
1st, measures for preventing the 
introduction of the contagion; 2d, 
measures for suppressing the dis- 
ease in the flock, and 3d, treatment 
of individual birds. 

The prevention of diphtheria is 
mucti more successful than its cure, 
and, besides, it saves much time and many valuable 
birds that will succumb before treatment can be com- 
menced or notwithstanding treatment. Fowls should 
not be allowed to mingle with those on neighboring 
premises. If some of the birds have been to a show 
or if new birds have been purchased for the flock, 
quarantine them at a distance from the home flock for 
thirty days before they are allowed to go together. 
While in quarantine the}- should be examined from 




Fig-. ii7.— Roof of the 
mouth showing" ihe exu- 
date of diphtheria. 



224 DISEASES OF POULTRY. 

time to time for symptoms of diphtheria, with special 
reference to the existence of grayish or yellowish 
patches in the mouth or eyes, or obstruction of the 
breathing. If at the end of thirty days they have 
shown no symptoms of this kind the danger ma}^ be 
considered past. Keep the poultry -houses clean and 
dry, have ample ventilation but freedom from draughts 
of air, and arrange the house so that the sun will 
shine into it a portion of the day. 

If the disease appears in the flock, notwithstanding 
the ])reventive measures suggested, remove the sick 
lairds for treatment as soon as the earliest symptoms 
are detected. Disinfect the poultry -house and runs 
with a five-per-cent solution of carbolic acid and 
repeat this disinfection at least once a week while the 
disease remains. Feed a well-balanced ration con- 
taining a small proportion of meat scrap. Burn or 
safely bury all dead birds. 

The sick birds should be ])laced in a warm, venti- 
lated, clean, drj^ hospital room, where they will not 
be exposed to draughts of air and where they can be 
readily caught for examination and treatment. Apply 
three times a day to the diphtheritic spots in the 
mouth and eyes a two -per -cent solution of either 
creolin or of pure carbolic acid in water, and if possi- 
ble inject a small quantity of the same solution into 
the nostrils. Remove the diphtheritic membranes as 
soon as this can be done without causing bleeding 
from the affected surface and continue the application 
of the remedy. Tincture of iodine has been success- 
fully applied to the diseased parts of the mouth, and 
a solution of salic3'lic acid in water 1 grain to the 
ounce has been recommended for the eyes. Boric 
acid solution of the strength of 15 grains to an ounce 



DISEASES OF POULTRY. 225 

of water may be applied to the eyes, nostrils or mouth 
and while often beneficial has the advantage of being 
one of the mildest and safest remedies reconmiended. 
It may be applied as frequently as convenient, and if 
a pledget of absorbent cotton is saturated with it and 
held for some minutes upon the affected part, the 
beneficial effects are increased. Some recommend re- 
moval of the membranes, treatment of the affected 
patches with boric acid solution and then covering the 
part with flowers of sulphur. An excellent remedy is 
made by dissolving thirty -five grains of chlorate of 
potassium and two grains of salicylic acid in one 
ounce of water and adding one ounce of glycerine. 
This liquid should be applied to the diphtheritic spots 
two or three times a day and may also be given in- 
ternally in the dose of a teaspoonful for fowls and 
one -fourth to one -half as much for pigeons. 

Fumigation with oil of turpentine by evaporating 
this in the room so that the affected birds will be 
forced to breathe the vapors has been found beneficial. 
It is best not to use fire for this evaporation, as the 
turpentine is ver}- inflammable. The desired result 
may be obtained by heating a brick, a stone or a piece 
of iron at the stove, taking this to the room where the 
sick fowls are confined and pouring the turpentine 
upon the heated surface as fast as it evaporates. In 
this way the air of the room is charged with turpen- 
tine vapors which are inhaled by the birds at each 
inspiration. This fumigation should be repeated 
twice a day. 

Stimulating and tonic remedies have been more or 
less successful and are especially valuable in the 
chronic forms of the disease. The following com- 
bination may be used : Cayenne pepper, sulphate of 



226 DISEASES OF POULTRY. 

quinine and sulphate of iron, of each one grain. Mix 
and make into pills with a small quantity of sj'rup. 
Give at one dose for fowls, and for pigeons one-third 
the quantity. Another tonic is made by mixing 
sulphate of iron 45 grains with carbonate of soda, 
finely pulverized, 1 dram, honey or syrup sufBcient for 
proper consistency. It is divided into 50 ]iills. 

Vaccination has been practiced successfully by Loir 
and Ducloux. The weaker vaccine is made by heat- 
ing cultures of the bacilli to 55 degrees C. for half an 
hour. A dose of one cubic centimeter of such vaccine 
injected under the skin of fowls causes only a slight 
elevation of temperature and confers a certain degree 
of immunity. These birds are then inoculated with 
one cubic centimeter of a culture of the bacilli two 
months old. This second vaccination raises the im- 
munity to such a degree that the birds are able to re- 
sist the contagion. 

It has recently been proposed to treat birds with the 
same antitoxin that is made for human diphtheria, 
and very successful results are claimed for such treat- 
ment. It is just possible that this conclusion may be 
confirmed ; but the almost unanimous testimony of 
bacteriologists that the germs of the human and avian 
diseases are entirely distinct makes such confirmation 
very doubtful. 

For further suggestions as to treatment the reader is 
referred to the article on contagious catarrh. 

Fowls which have been affected should not be re- 
turned to the flock for thirty days after they have 
apparently recovered, otherwise they may still com- 
municate contagion. 

INFECTIOUS LEUKEMIA. 

A disease of fowls which appeared to be quite com- 



• % 



DISEASES OF POULTRY, 227 

nion was investigated by Moore in 1894 and 1895 and 
described under the name infectious lenkcemia. The 
term leukaemia (or leucaemia) is used to designate a 
condition of the blood in which there is a deficiency 
of coloring matter. In the disease under considera- 
tion the blood is light colored or pale owing to a con- 
siderable decrease in the number of red globules and 
^ an increase in the 

' ^ « « % * # number of white 

^ »f • corpuscles or 

%« • , * leucocytes. As 

• * ^ • * • • the malady was 

found to be caused 
by a bacterium 
and to be infec- 
tious, it was de- 
cided to call it i7i- 
„. .„ r. / ■ ^ ■ ■ 1 . -n^^ ^.,1 fectiojis leukceniia. 

Fig. 68. — Bactcrtiiin saiigiiiiiarnnii, bouillon cul- -J 

ture, (mag-nified 2,0tK) diameters). A Sufl&cient num- 

ber of cases have not yet been studied to permit a 
satisfactory description to be written ; but such facts 
as have been noted are summarized in this article. 
The disease has frequently teeen mistaken for fowl 
cholera, and has been observed in Rhode Island, 
Maryland, District of Columbia, and Virginia. A 
very fatal outbreak of this disease has been observed 
by the author in a large brooder -house among in- 
cubator chickens from one to three weeks old. 

Symptoms. — The disease appears with a consider- 
able elevation of temperature, reaching three degrees 
or more above the normal. There is drowsiness and 
general debility, with paleness of the mucous mem- 
branes and also of the comb, wattles, and skin about 
the head. The fever is of a continuous type. 





# 



228 



DISEASES OF POULTRY. 





O^ 



^. 



i 



<8> 



% 

'^'O-^ 



generally resulting in death in from four to five days. 
In some cases the duration of the disease is longer and 
two or three weeks may elapse before the death of the 
bird. There is then excessive emaciation. A micro- 
scopic examination of the blood shows a marked 
diminution in the number of red corpuscles and an in- 
crease in the number of white ones. In one case the 
red corpuscles 
decreased from 
3,744,000 per 
cubic millimeter 
to 2, 133, 000, 
and the white 
ones increased 
from 21,000 to 
14 0,000. In 
another case the 
red corpuscles Fig. 69.- 
were diminished 
from 3,534,000 to 1,745,000, while the white ones 
increased from 19,000 to 245,000. There is loss of 
appetite with slight ruffling of the plumage, and the 
head drawn close to the bod}'. There appears to be 
uo diarrheal symptoms with this disease, or if thej^ are 
sometimes seen the}' may be regarded as exceptional. 
The period of incubation is from two to four daj^s. 
The alterations discovered hy postmorton examination 
are confined to the liver and the blood. The liver is 
somewhat enlarged and dark colored, and the surface 
is sprinkled with minute grayish areas. 

Causation. — This disease is undoubtedl}' infectious 
and is caused by a micro-organism which Moore has 
named Bactoiiim sangrdnarijim. This germ is a non- 
motile, rod -shaped organism, which as found in the 



-Barti'riuin saiigiiiiiniiiiw from liver of 
fowl, (mag'tiified 2,0(Ni diameters). 



I 








DISEASES OF POULTRY. 229 

tissues of fowls is from 1.2 to 1.8 micro -millimeters 
long and 1 to 1.3 micro -millimeters broad. It fre- 
quently appears in small clumps, but as a rule is in 
pairs united end to end. This germ is found in the 
blood and in various organs of the bod}'. 

Experimentally the disease has been produced by 
inoculating with pure cultures of the germs and by 

feeding pure cultures 
or the organs of 
affected fowls. The 
injection of 0.3 cubic 
centimeter of a fresh 
■-> culture into the wing 
vein caused the dis- 
ease and death in 
^^ .-' - .. from three to thirteen 

'' ; days ; usually on the 

Fig-. ~o.—Bactti-ium saiigiinuniiiiii from "tth Or SlXtU day. 

spleen of rabbit. Feeding cultures or 

viscera of affected birds was followed by death in 
from seven to fifteen days, but only about half of the 
birds fed contracted the disease. Pigeons, rabbits, 
guinea pigs and mice contract the disease if inoculated 
with 0.2 to 0.3 cubic centimeter of culture and die 
withiii three to six daj's. 

It appears probable from these investigations that 
the contagion in natural outbreaks is taken into the 
body with the food, but the disease is not readily 
propagated under sanitary conditions. Healthy fowls 
placed in cages with diseased ones did not in a single 
instance contract the disease. When cultures of the 
germs and diseased viscera were fed, only about one- 
half of the fowls became affected. Notv/ithstanding 
this, nearly all of one flock of about fifty fowls near 



230 



DISEASES OF POULTRY. 



Washington, D. C. died from this disease; nearly 
eighty hens and pullets were lost on a farm at Tackett 
Mills; Va.; about fifty-five out of seventy died in a 
flock, on Block Island ; fifty old hens died on a farm in 
Maryland near Washington ; and several thousand 
small chickens died in a broiler -raising establishment 
in the same section. 
These instances are 
mentioned to show 
the destructiveness 
of the disease under 
conditions favorable 
to its propagation. 
The germ can not be 
considered a very 
virulent one, how- 
ever, and, as sug- 
gested by Moore, 
the outbreaks ap- 
pear to occur where 
the requirements of fi?. 7i.-7;«./,;W.,,.<^,/..nW h, capiiury 

Ordinarv hvo^iene °^ fowl's Uver, (magnified 2,0U0 diameters.) 

are not strictly complied with. In other words, this 
malady may be looked upon as a filth disease, and as 
the germ resembles in some respects the common 
intestinal germ known as the Bacillus coli covimnnis., 
it is not improbable that outbreaks may occur from 
filth without the necessity of importing the contagion 
upon a premises. In the brooder -houses above re- 
ferred to, the brooders were not bedded with sand as 
they should be, but the chicks were placed directly 
upon the wooden floors, which became saturated with 
the droppings. In the high temperature necessarily 
maintained in the brooders, the decomposition of such 




DISEASES OF POULTRY. 231 

organic material was rapid, and the chicks were ex- 
posed both to the foul gaseous emanations, and to the 
germs which abound in putrefying excreta. 

Treatment. — The prevention of the filth diseases 
is much easier than their cure, and this malady is no 
exception to the rule. Cleanliness, good food, pure 
water and ventilation are conditions antagonistic to 
the propagation of infectious leukaemia. With these 
conditions, it has been found difficult to keep up the 
disease experimentallJ^ and it has not been found 
upon premises where they exist. 

When this disease appears the poultry -houses 
should be cleaned and whitewashed The floors 
should be sprinkled with carbolic acid in solution of 
five -per -cent strength. Other efficient disinfectants 
ma}" of course be used if more convenient. The sick 
fowls must be removed and isolated. Quinine in the 
dose of 1 to 2 grains has been suggested for the sick 
fowls. Sulphate of iron (copperas) in the drinking 
water is thought to be a good prophylactic remedy. 
Probably any stimulating and tonic treatment will 
prove beneficial after proper sanitary surroundings are 
secured. 

It has been found experimentally that the germ is 
killed in five minutes bj' a one -per -cent solution of 
carbolic acid, and in ten minutes by lime water. 
Sulphur fumes were also effectual by three hours 
treatment. It is, also, destroyed by a temperature of 
136.4 degrees F., and, consequently, boiling water 
may be used to cleanse drinking and feeding troughs 
and other infected articles. As the disease appears to 
be one of the most common to which fowls are sub - 
ject, there should be ample opportunities to make 



232 DISEASES OF POULTRY. 

experiments for determinini^: if any other measures of 
treatment are available. 

FOWL CHOLERA. 

This is a contag-ious disease of birds caused by- 
bacteria, and transmissable bj- cohabitation and in- 
oculation. It is characterized b}- high fever, great 
weakness and prostration, and usually terminates in 
the death of the affected bird. 

History. — This disease is mentioned in some of 
the oldest works treating of the diseases of animals. 
It was studied in 1782 b}' Chabert who regarded it as 
a form of anthrax. This error is frequently repeated 
by writers of the present day. Fowl cholera is not 
a form of anthrax and has none of the characteristics 
of that plague which is so fatal in its results upon 
nearly all warm-blooded animals. 

Since 1825, fowl cholera has been frequently ob- 
served in France and caused enormous losses in 1830, 
1850, and above all in 1860. About 1830 it became 
known in Russia, Bohemia and Austria. During 
recent years it has been observed in about all the 
countries of Europe as well as in the United States. 

Benjamin in 1851 considered it to be a contagious 
disease and remarked that people and dogs might 
consume with impunity, the meat of affected fowls. 
Delafond and others observed that it might be trans- 
mitted to birds and rabbits by using the blood, the 
secretions, and portions of the flesh as infective 
agencies. They also recognized the virulence of the 
excrement and the important part which this plays in 
the dissemination of the contagion. 

The recent investigations of this disease began 
with an important article by Perroncito in which the 
specific germ of the disease was described. This was 



DISEASES OF POULTRY. 233 

followed by the contributions of Pasteur, who, in 
1880, cultivated the germ in chicken broth and showed 
that its virulence might be reduced to such an extent 
that it could safely be used for vaccination. This is 
the first case in which a virulent germ was success- 
fully modified in a laboratory and made to act as a 
vaccine. It led to the preparation of vaccines for a 
number of diseases, more particularly anthrax, black 
quarter, and rabies. 

The disease was at about the same time investigated 
by the author, who gave special attention to vaccina- 
tion and the effect of disinfectants in destroying this 
virus. 

General Characters. — Fowl cholera attacks 
all varieties of domesticated poultrj^ — chickens, ducks, 
geese, pigeons, turkej^s, and also caged birds such as 
parrots and canaries. It also affects some species of 
wild birds. 

The infection generally occurs by taking food or 
drink contaminated with the excrement of sick birds. 
It is, also, possible for birds to be infected through 
wounds of the skin or by inhalation of the germs in 
the form of dust suspended in the air. They often 
take the germs into their bodies by consuming parti- 
cles of flesh or blood from the carcasses of affected 
birds that have died or have been killed. 

This disease is generally introduced upon a farm, 
or in a locality, with new birds purchased for improv- 
ing the flocks, or with eggs for hatching. When it 
exists in a district it may be disseminated by wild 
animals or wild birds. 

Fowl cholera is communicable by inoculation to 
rabbits and mice. Guinea pigs are not very suscepti- 
ble; the young animals may die but the adult ones 



234 DISEASES OF POULTRY. 

usually have nothing more than an abscess at the 
point of inoculation. 

Symptoms. — This disease as it occurs in Europe is 
more rapid in its course and differs somewhat in its 
symptoms from outbreaks which the author has ob- 
served in the United States. The incubation in 
Europe is placed at 8 to 16 hours. In the case of 40 
fowls inoculated by the author, the average period of 
incubation was 8 days, and it varied from 4 to 20 
days. The virus evidently varies in its activity in 
this country. The duration of the disease, also, varies. 
With the 40 cases mentioned above it averaged 3 days. 
The sick birds generally stop eating or the appetite 
is lessened, though occasionally they continue to eat 
almost to the time of death. The earliest indication 
of the disease, is a yellow coloration of the urates, or 
that part of the excrement which is excreted by the 
kidneys. This is in health a pure white, though it is 
frequentl}^ tinted with yellow as the result of other 
disorders than cholera. While, therefore, this yellow- 
ish color of the urates is not an absolutely certain 
proof of cholera, it is a valuable indication when the 
disease has appeared in a flock and an effort is being 
made to check its course by isolating birds as soon as 
possible after infection. 

In a few cases the first symptom is a diarrhea in 
which the excrement is passed in large quantities and 
consists almost entirely of white urates mixed with 
colorless mucus. Generally, the diarrhea is a prom- 
inent symptom. The excrement is voided frequently 
and consists largely of urates suspended in a thin, 
transparent, sometimes frothy mucus. The urates 
have a deep yellow color, which in the later stages of 



DISEASES OF POULTRY. 235 

the disease may change to greenish or even a deep 
green , 

Very soon after these first symptoms appear the 
bird separates itself from the fiock, it no longer stands 
erect, the feathers are roughened or stand on end, the 
wings droop, the head is drawn down towards the 
body and the generr.l outline of the bird becomes 
spherical or ball-shaped. At this period, there is 
great weakness, the affected bird becomes drowsy and 
maj'- sink into a sleep which lasts during the last 
day or two of its life, and from which it is almost 
impossible to arouse it. 

The crop is nearly always distended with food and 
apparently paralysed. There is in most cases intense 
thirst. If the birds are aroused and caused to walk 
there is at first an abundant discharge of excrement 
followed at short intervals by scanty evacuations. 

With the beginning of diarrhea the body tempera - 
ture rises to 109 degrees or 110 degrees F., which is 
2 degrees to 4 degrees above the normal. The comb 
loses its bright hue and becomes pale and bloodless. 
In Europe the comb is described as dark blue, purple, 
or black, and some writers in the United States have 
referred to it in the same terms, but the author has 
never observed a dark comb in the cases he has seen. 

Diseased birds rapidly lose in weight, they are so 
weak that a slight touch causes them to fall over, and 
they walk with great difficulty. Death may occur 
without a struggle or there may be convulsive move- 
ments and cries. 

This disease may rapidly run through a flock de- 
stroying the greater part of the birds in a week, or it 
may assume a more chronic form, extend slowly, and 



236 DISEASES OF POULTRY. 

remain upon the premises for several weeks or 
months. 

Postmortem Appearances. — The comb is pale 
and bloodless, but neither dark nor dark blue, as it 
has often been described, particularly in Europe. The 
superficial blood vessels generally contain but little 
blood, and there are in most cases soiled feathers about 
the anus, to which the excrement may adhere in con- 
siderable quantity. 

The liver in nearly every case is enormously en- 
larged, softened, wuth blood vessels very apparent, 
often of a very dark or dark -green color. The gall 
bladder is distended with thick, dark bile. 

The crop is generally distended with food, though 
no special lesions have been noticed here The stom- 
ach, viewed externally, often presents a number of 
circular discolorations about one -tenth of an inch in 
diameter, which on section are found to be small clots 
of extravasated blood. The small intestines are con- 
gested . 

The rectum and cloaca generally present deep red 
lines upon their mucous membrane, evidently the first 
stage of inflammation, which results, in chronic cases, 
in thickening of the walls, especially of the rectum, 
the desquamation of the mucous membrane, and the 
formation of large ulcerous surfaces. 

The mesentery is generally congested, often greatly 
thickened and rendered opaque by inflammation. The 
ureters are distended with yellow urates ; the kidneys 
seem engorged, and on section accumulations of the 
tenacious, yellow urates are frequently seen. The 
spleen is generally normal in size and appearance, 
though frequently enlarged and softened. 

The pericardium is sometimes distended with effu- 



DISEASES OF POULTRY. 



237 



sion, in which case there is noticeable hyperaemia of 
the surface of the heart. The lungs are often, though 
not generall3^ engorged with dark blood; they are 
seldom, if ever, hepatized. 

The blood vessels are sometimes filled with a firm 
clot, and contain but little liquid ; at other times the 
blood does not coagulate at all. It seems to be those 
cases where the duration of the disease has been long- 
est, in which the blood loses its property of coagu- 
lation. 

The brain, in the case examined, was either normal 
or not very perceptibly altered. The muscles at the 

seat of inoculation are 
generally reddened, though 
sometimes perfectly normal. 
Causation. — The cause 
of fowl cholera is a minute 
germ which under the 
microscope presents either 
a circular or oval outline. 
It is one of the bacteria 
and has been called by 
some a micrococcus, and 
by others a bacillus. It 
is about one fiftj^- thou- 
sandth of an inch broad 
and two or three times 
as long. It grows best at from 85 degrees to 105 
degrees F. It has no power of movement, does not 
form spores, and is easily destroyed by drying, by the 
ordinary disinfectants, and by a temperature of 132 
degrees F. for 15 minutes. 

In the experiments of the author it was found that 
the virus was destroyed by salicjdic acid 1 per cent ; 




Fig. 72.— BacUliof fowl cholera. 



238 DISEASES OF POULTRY. 

benzoic acid 1 per cent; carbolic acid 1 per cent; 
sulphuric acid }4 per cent. Substances which failed 
to destroy the virulence were alcohol 20 per cent; 
boric acid 2 per cent ; sulphate of potassium 2 per 
cent; iodine 0.1 per cent. 

This germ ma3^ gain entrance to the body through 
the digestive tract, the respiratory organs, or through 
wounds of the skin. It diffuses itself through the 
blood, multiplying in this liquid, and in all of the 
liquids and organs of the body. Death is caused in 
acute cases by the toxic substances produced during 
the multiplication of the germ, and in chronic cases, 
by the disturbances of digestion, assimilation and 
nutrition. 

The meat of infected and even of dead birds has 
been eaten in some countries without injurious effects 
to the consumers. It is assumed, therefore, that such 
meat is innocuous ; but its sale should be prohibited 
in common with all meat from sick animals, or from 
those which have died from natural causes. 

The germ of fowl cholera is fatal to rabbits, 
causing death in from twelve to forty -eight hours. 
When inoculated upon guinea pigs, sheep, horses and 
mankind, an abscess forms at the point of inoculation, 
but there are no general symptoms and recovery soon 
follows. 

Treatment. — All forms of medical treatment for 
cholera have been unsatisfactory when tested suffici - 
ently to prove their exact effects. Many preparations 
have been recommended, but their sanguine discover- 
ers had not been careful to ascertain that they really 
were treating cholera, or they had tried them on so 
few birds that their results w^ere untrustworthy. 

The drugs most frequently used are sulphur, 



DISEASES OF POULTRY. 239 

copperas, capsicum, alum and resin, g:iven either 
alone or mixed together. The effect of these 
remedies is either stimulating or astringent or both 
according to the combination that is used. Some rec- 
ommend a solution made by diluting one dram of 
carbolic or hydrochloric acid with one quart of water. 
This is given to adult birds in the dose of a dessert- 
spoonful. We would not advise our readers to put 
much confidence in internal medication. 

The proper manner of combating cholera is to carry 
out strict sanitary precautions. Remember that it is 
a contagious disease and that it depends upon germs 
which are in some way brought upon the premises 
from some other place where the disease exists. The 
contagion may be carried in various ways. Sometimes 
it is brought with newly purchased birds ; sometimes 
it comes with eggs ; sometimes it is carried by wild 
birds, and sometimes it is transported by animals. 
The poultryman must guard against the introduction 
of contagion into his flock by all means at his com- 
mand. He must isolate and quarantine newly pur- 
chased birds for two weeks before they are mixed with 
his flock. If he hatches eggs from other yards, the 
nest and the young birds must be kept isolated until 
it is known that they are healthy, that is until the 
chicks are ten days old. 

Dogs and other animals should be fenced out of the 
poultry -yards if possible. Birds which have been 
exhibited at shows should be quarantined for ten days 
after their return. 

Should the disease appear in spite of precautions, 
isolate and disinfect. The isolation need not require 
a wide separation of the birds. Ten feet is sufficient 
distance to prevent the communication of this con- 



240 DISEASES OF POULTRY. 

tagion, if it is not carried in some way from pen to 
pen by the attendant or by animals. It does not 
spread to any appreciable distance through the at- 
mosphere. 

Disinfection. — Disinfection should be constant 
while this disease is on the premises. For this pur- 
pose a solution may be made by mixing one pound of 
carbolic acid with twenty -four pounds, or say twelve 
quarts, of hot water. Or one pound of sulphuric acid 
to fifty quarts of water may be used. The latter is 
the cheapest but it is more dangerous to use. When 
the sulphuric acid is purchased have the druggist 
dilute it with twice its weight of water. If thus 
diluted it will not burn the flesh or clothing as severely 
as when concentrated and there is little danger of an 
explosion when it is further diluted. When diluting 
it, always pour the acid very slowly into a compara- 
tively^ large quantity of water, being careful that it 
does not splash into the eyes, and remember that con- 
siderable heat results. A wooden bucket is, therefore, 
better than a glass bottle, and, on account of its cor- 
rosive nature, metal vessels can only be used for the 
most dilute solution. If carefully used with proper 
precautions to prevent it flying into the face or eyes 
when diluting, sulphuric acid is the most satisfactory 
disinfectant. If any gets upon the flesh, apply large 
quantities of water at once, or it will burn very 
deeply; if it reaches the clothing it causes discolora- 
tion and soon destroys the fabric. It may be neutral- 
ized with ammonia or a solution of baking soda. 
With this digression concerning disinfectants we will 
now return to the methods of disinfecting. If possi- 
ble move the fowls to new runs and new houses when 
cholera appears among them. Before the}^ are moved. 



DISEASES OF POULTRY. 241 

however, separate all which are apparent!}' sick and 
put these by themselves. Now saturate the floor of 
the old house and all of the manure which is about it 
with one of the disinfectants just mentioned. This 
may be applied conveniently with a watering can such 
as is used for watering flowerbeds or gardens. 

The health}' fowls of the flock should be confined to 
a small run, and this as well as the poultry -house 
should be disinfected by sprinkling at least once a 
day. The droppings should be swept up, disinfected 
and removed every day. The buildings should be 
well whitewashed and the disinfecting effect of this 
application may be increased by adding one quarter of 
a pound of carbolic acid to each gallon of lime. 

Eradicating Cholera — The fowls should be 
carefull}' watched and if any show signs of disease 
they should be removed at once. It is possible to 
arrest an outbreak of fowl cholera in a very short time 
by adopting such measures. If they are persevered 
in for two or three weeks without any more birds be- 
coming sick the danger may be considered at an end. 

The dif^ficulty of arresting outbreaks of cholera is 
usually due to the fowls being allowed to roam over 
an unlimited range. By the time the disease is recog- 
nized, the contagion is widely scattered through the 
droppings of the affected birds. It is, of course, im- 
possible to disinfect a large range, and, consequently, 
the birds continue to pick up the infection and one 
after another contract the disease until the greater part 
is lost. 

If it is decided to kill sick birds in order to get rid 
of the contagion as rapidl}' as possi^_/le, dig a deep 
hole, put the birds into it and kill them there, so that 
their bodies and blood will be buried together. Other- 



242 DISEASES OF POULTRY. 

wise the blood, which is very virulent, ma^^ remain 
on the surface of the ground to cause another out- 
break of the disease. The birds which die from 
cholera should in all cases be cremated or deeply 
buried. 

Vaccination. — Vaccination can not be recom- 
mended as a preventive. The susceptibility of differ- 
ent breeds of birds varies to such an extent that a 
vaccine which is safe for one may be deadly for 
another. If we had only one l)reed of birds to deal with 
there is little doubt l)ut that vaccination would be 
adapted to it and made a practical preventive ; but 
with so many breeds, each varying from the other, the 
task of the vaccinator is discouraging. 

An interesting discovery in this connection was 
made by Dr. Kitt, a German veterinarian. Kitt 
found that the eggs of fowls that had been made im- 
mune to cholera contain something analogous to 
antitoxin, which may be used to produce immunity in 
other birds. He injects from one to two and one - 
quarter drams of the white of the eggs under the skin 
.of the bird to be protected. F'rom what we know 
concerning the antitoxins of other diseases, it is 
probable that such eggs wDuld be more useful in treat- 
ing sick birds than in vaccinating well ones against 
the disease. 

It would not be a difficult matter to vaccinate or 
inoculate a number of hens until they had a very high 
degree of immunity, and their eggs should then, ac- 
cording to this doctrine, be of great remedial value. 
For valuable birds this treatment might be of service, 
but it is doubtful if there would ever be sufhcient call 
for the remedy to warrant anj- one in making the 
necessary preparations to supply it when needed. 



t)iSRASKS OF POULYRY. " 243 



CHAPTER XII. 



Injurious Habits or Vichs. 



KGG KATING— FEATHKR EATING, FEATHRR PX'tl^ING 



® 



EGG EATING. 

NE of the most troublesome and injurious of 
the acquired hal)its of poultry is eg'g eating. 
Undoubtedly the habit begins in most cases 
by the accidental breaking of an egg in the 
nest, but it rapidly spreads among the flock until a 
large proportion of the eggs laid are purposely broken 
and eaten by the hens. The heav}'^ breeds of fowls 
are most subject to this habit because they more 
frequentl}'- break their eggs by stepping upon them 
than do lighter birds. When an egg is broken it is 
too tempting a morsel to be left in the nest. The hen 
not only eats it, but often carries large pieces of the 
shell about the house or grounds, pursued by other 
members of the flock, each of which wants a portion. 
In this manner a number of individuals soon learn 
how appetizing are eggs and egg shells, and each in 
turn becomes a teacher of others. 

It is plain that whatever conditions contribute to 
the breaking of eggs in the nests may be considered 
as causes of the habit. Thin -shell eggs are easily 
broken, and, hence, a deficiency of shell -forming 
constituents in the ration may be a cause. In other 
cases an egg may be broken for want of sufficient 



244 DISEASES OF POULTRY. 

straw in the nest to protect it from direct contact with 
the wood. 

To guard against the formation of the egg -eating 
habit the fowls should have plenty of lime, oyster- 
shells, bone, or similar substances to ensure a firm 
shell upon the eggs. The nests should be properly 
supplied with straw, and artificial nest eggs should 
be used. In this way the danger of breaking eggs is 
reduced to a minimum. It is, also, well to have the 
nests rather dark so that if an egg is accidentally 
broken the hen will not discover it. 

When the habit has been once acquired, these pre- 
cautions are not always sufficient, and it may be 
necessarj' to construct the nests so that the eggs will 
roll beyond the reach of the hen. Some people place 
artificial eggs in the nests and about the houses so 
that the hens ma}' peck at them and get the idea that 
they are no longer able to break egg shells. Others 
blow out the contents of a few eggs through a small 
hole in the shell and fill the space with a paste con- 
sisting largely of mustard, capsicum, aloes or other 
disagreeable compounds and leave these where the 
hens will find them. 

Under any circumstances, it is best to remove the 
egg eaters from the remainder of the flock, and, unless 
they are very valuable, to kill them for the table. If 
they are too valuable for this treatment, then dark 
nests or those in which the egg rolls into a safe recep- 
tacle are the only resources. 

FEATHER EATING, FEATHER PULLING. 

Fowls often acquire the haljit of pulling out and 
eating either their own feathers or the feathers of other 
memliers of the flock. This vice is acquired most 
frecjuently in the Spring or at molting time. The 



DISEASES OF POULTRV. 245 

first indication that the birds are pulling feathers is 
the loss of plumage, bareness and redness of the skin 
over the posterior part of the back. Sometimes the 
skin has become abraded by repeated pecking and 
sores result. If the birds are watched carefully, they 
will be seen to catch one or more feathers in their 
beaks, tear them out and swallow them. They are 
apparently most fond of the young, growing feathers, 
the quills of which are filled with blood. 

Various causes have been assigned for this habit, the 
most probable being improper rations and insufhcient 
exercise or idleness. In some instances, it may 
originate from irritation of the skin caused by animal 
parasites. In general, it ma}^ be said that anything 
which produces an abnormal appetite predisposes to 
feather eating. 

As preventive measures, the birds should be given 
a free run or they should at least be made to scratch 
for a large part of their food. This exercise improves 
their digestion and gives them something to occupy 
their time. As in some cases, the habit is due to in- 
sufficient animal matter in the ration or to feeding too 
long on a single kind of grain, particularly corn, one 
of the first measures adopted should be a well balanced 
ration containing skim milk, meat, bone, vegetables 
or green feed and frequently varied. 

The Geneva, N. Y. experiment station applied to 
the feathers lard or vaseline in which powdered aloes 
had been mixed and after continuing this treatment 
for some time the habit disappeared. This success 
was thought to be due to the disagreeable taste of the 
aloes. It is some trouble to apply this mixture, how- 
ever, and unless the fowls are of particular value, it 
is probably better to rely upon exercise, variet}' of 



246 r)isKASES of poultry. 

food and separation of the most inveterate subjects. 
The skin and feathers should be carefully examined 
for lice and mites, and if these are found the remedies 
recommended for such parasites should be applied. 
As lack of grit may be the cause of indigestion, this 
essential element of the ration should receive atten- 
tion, and it is well to give 6 or 8 grains daily of a 
mixture of equal parts of powdered gentian root and 
ginger. The birds should also be examined for in- 
testinal parasites. 



DISK ASKS OF POULTRY. 
INDEX. 



247 



Abscesses, Deep Bruises and, 203 
Air Passatres, Mycosis of the, 56 
Air Sac Mite, The, 61 
Aiifi^ina, Croupous, 76 
Anomalies in Ers^ Production, 154 
Aphthie, Thrush, 72 
Apoplexj^ 160 

Appetite, Aberration of the, 83 
Appetite, Abnormal, 83 
Ascites, 129 
Aspergillosis, 56, 75 
Asthenia, Going- Light, 00 
Atroph3- of the Ovary, 147 
Atrophy or Wasting- of the Liver, 
132 

B 
Beak, Obstruction of the, 69 
Black Head, 103 
Brain, Congestion of the. 159 
Brain, Hemorrhage of the, 160 
Bronchitis, 37 

Bronchitis, Verminous Tracheo- 40 
Bruises and Abscesses, Deep, 203 



Catarrh, Cotitagious, 31 
Catarrh, Gastro-Inteslinal, 88 
Catarrh, Simple. 29 
Chicken Pox, 192 
Cholera, Eradicating, 241 
Cholera, Fowl, 232 
Cholera, Vaccination for, 242 
Cloaca, Obstruction of the, by Uri- 
nary Concretions, 140 
Cloacitis, 153 

Congestion of the Lungs. 51 
Congestion, Pulmonary, 51 
Constipation, 90 
Corns. 202 

Crop, Catarrh of the. 78 
Crop, Impacted, 80 
Crop, Inflammation of the, 78 
Crop, Obstructed, 80 
Crop, Paralvbis of the, 80 

D 

Diarrhea, Simple, 88 
Digestive Organs. General Re- 
marks Concerning the, 66 
Diphtheria. 74. 216 
Diphtheritic Roup, 216 
Disease, Common Causes of, 17 
Disinfection. 20 
Dropsy. Abdominal, 129 
Dropsy of the Heart Sac, 162 

E 
Egg Bound, 151 
Egg Eating, 243 

Eggs, Incomplete or Aborted. 157 
Egg Incubated in the Oviduct, 154 



Eggs, Parasites in, 155 

Egg Production, Anomalies in, 154 

E2ggs, Sanguineous, 156 

Eggs Within Eggs, 158 

Eggs Without Shells, 156 

Eggs with Two Yolks, 157 

Endocarditis, lfi3 

Enteritis, 88 

Enteritis, Bacterial, 94 

Enteritis, Gastro- 88 

Enteritis, Toxic Gastro- 92 

Enteritis, Psorosperniic, 100 

Epizoa or Parasites Living Upon 

the External Surface of the 

body, 165 
Epilepsy, 160 

F 

Favus, 187 

Feather Eating, 244 

Feather Pulling, 244 

Feet, Diseases of the, 200 

Fowl Cholera, 232 

Fowl Cholera, General Characters, 

233 
Fowl Cholera, History of, 232 
Fowl Cholera, Vaccination for, 242 

G 
(iangrene of the Ovary, 148 
Gangrene of the Oviduct, 152 
Gapes, The, 40 
Gastritis, 84 

Going L'ght, Asthenia, 99 
Gout, Rheumatism and, 199 

H 

Health and Disease, 14 

Heart. Hypertrophy of the, 163 

Heart, Inflammation of the Inter- 
nal Membrane of the, 163 

Heart, Rupture of the, and Large 
Blood Vessels, 164 

Heart Sac, Dropsy of the, 162 

Hemorrhage of the Brain, 160 

Hepatitis, 131 

Hepatitis of Turkevs, Infectious 
Entero- 103 

Hygienic Requirements, 18 

Hyper;cniia, Cerebral, 159 

Hvpertrophv or Enlargement of 
the Testicles, 141 

I 

Icterus, 131 

Infectious Entero- Hepatitis of 

Turkeys, 103 
Infectious Leukeemia, 226 
Intestinal Obstruction. 90 
Intestines, Parasites of the, 114 



Jaundice, 131 



248 



DISEASES OF POULTRY. 



KidiiejF, Abscess of the, 139 
Kidneys, Inflammation of the, 137 



Laying', Difficult, 151 

Leg' Weakness, 198 

Leukemia, Infectious, 226 

Liver, Atrophj' or Wasting of the. 

132 
Liver, Congestion of the, 130 
Liver, Diseases of the, 129 
Liver, Fatty, 134 
Liver, Fattv Degeneration of the, 

133 
Liver, Inflammation of the, 131 
Liver, Tuberculosis of the. 134 
Lung's, Congestion of the, 51 
Lungs, Inflammation of the, S3 

M 
Medical Treatment, Objects of, 22 
Mucous Membrane of the Mouth, 

Inflammation of the, 70 
M3cosis of the Air Passages, 56 

N 
Nephritis, Parenchymatous, 137 

O 
Objects of Medical Treatment, 22 
Oesophagus, Parasites of the, 112 
Organs and Apparatus and their 

Functions, The. IS 
Ovary, Atrophy of the. 147 
Ovary, Gangrene of the, 148 
Ovary, Tumors of the, 148 
Oviduct, Egg Incubated in the, 154 
Oviduct, Gangrene of the, 152 
Oviduct. Inflammation of the. 140 
Oviduct, Obstruction of the, ISl 
Oviduct, Prolapsus or E version of 

the, 150 
Oviduct, Rupture of the. 152 



Parasites in Eggs, 155 

Parasites of the Intestines and 

Peritoneum, 114 
Parasites Living upon the External 

Surface of the Body, Epizoa or, 

165 
Parasites of the Oesophagus and 

Stomach, 112 
Parasites of the Peritoneum, 114 
Parasitic Worms which Infest the 

Digestive Apparatus, 111 
Pericarditis, 162 
Pericardium, Inflammation of the, 

162 
Peritoneum, Inflammation of the, 

127 
Peritoneum, Parasites of the. 114 
Peritoneum, Tuberculosis of the, 

134 
Peritonitis. 127 



Peritonitis, Chronic, 129 

Pharynx, Obstruction of the, 77 

Pigeon Pox, 192 

Pip, 70 

Pneumonia, S3 

Poultry Industry, The, 13 

Prolapsus or Eversion of the 

Oviduct, 150 
Proventriculus, Catarrh of the, 84 
Psorospermosis, 74 

R 

Repletion, Biliary, 131 

Reproduction, Female Organs of, 
142 

Reproduction, Male Organs of, 140 

Respiration, Structure and Func- 
tion of the Organs of, 26 

Rheumatism and Gout, 199 

Roup, Contagious Catarrh, 31 

Roup, Diphtheritic, 216 

Rupture of the Heart and Large 
Blood Vessels. 164 

Rupture of the Oviduct, 152 



Scabies Caused bv Epidermoptes. 

183 
Scabies Caused by Sarcoptes, 184 
Scabies, Depluming, 184 
Scabies of the Legs and Feet, 204 
Scabies or Mange of the Body, 183 
Scaly Legs, 2C4 
Sore Head, 192 
Sores, Superficial, 202 
Spleen, Tuberculosis of the, 134 
Stomach, Inflammation of the, 84 
Stomach, Parasites of the, 112 
Stomatitis, Catarrhal, 70 
Syngamosis, 40 
Syngamus Bronchialis, 51 



Taeniasis, Nodular, of Fowls, The, 
123 

Testicles, Cancer of the, 142 

Testicles, Fatty Degeneration of 
the, 142 

Testicles. Hypertrophy or Enlarge- 
ment of the, 141 

Thrush, Aphthae, 72 

Tuberculosis, 208 

Tuberculosis of the Liver, Spleen, 
and Peritoneum, 134 

Tumors of the Ovary, 148 
U 

Urination, Brief Description of (he 
Organs of, 136 

V 

Vaccination for Fowl Cholera, 242 

Vent Gleet. 153 

Vertigo, 159 

W 

Worms. Parasitic, which Infest the 
Digestive Apparatus, 111 



Jlk 171899 



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